A history of sculpture

Front matter

St^rESTi-iMS^.

ajorncll lUnioeraitg iCtbrarg

atliata, •New ^ork

Preface

In this book I have attempted to give a sketch of the history of sculpture from the beginnings of civilization in Egypt and Babylonia to the present day. The sculpture of the Far East is treated very briefly and, as 1 am perfectly conscious, insufficiently, because it has not affected the development of our own art, but has led a separate existence, in spite of the influence exerted upon it by Greek sculpture. For similar reasons, and also on account of its lack of intrinsic merit, the sculpture of the American aborigines, of the negro races, the tribes of Oceania, and other backward peoples has been altogether omitted. With these limitations, I have tried to include an account of all the important developments in the art of sculpture in ancient, mediaeval, and modern times, with such descriptions of individual works and information concerning individual artists as the space at my disposal and the available information permit. Since the book is a history, not a series of essays, I have attempted no detailed criticism. A brief description of the materials and methods employed in sculpture is contained in the Introduction.

It has not been my purpose to compile a dictionary of sculptors, but I have included in the book a considerable number of names, believing that the usefulness of the book would be thereby increased, though I am quite aware that some of the names I have omitted, especially in the chapters on modern sculpture, may be no less important than some of those that I have mentioned. A choice had to be made, and I have chosen as best I coukl.

Since this is a handbook, intended for the use of the general public and of young students, not a work of research for the enlightenment of scholars, I have not given references to my authorities for statements of fact or viii PREFACE

expressions of opinion, except in a few cases, and then for especial reasons. I liave seen most of the works of sculpture described or discussed in the book, but my opinions concerning them do not, as a rule, disagree with those of previous writers, and I have made no attempt to hide my indebtedness to my predecessors. Of the many books consulted, the titles of which are included in the Bibliography, I am most indebted to the great Uistoire de VArt of M. Michel and his collaborators.

I wish to express my thanks to the American Book Company for permission to use material already employed in an earlier book (Fowler and Wheeler, A Handbook of Greek Archaeology, American Book Company, 1909), to the directors and curators of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston for permission to publish photographs of works of sculpture in the lich collections under their charge, and to the kind friends who have assisted me by the loan or the gift of photographs. I am heartily grateful to The Macmillan Company for the patience with which my delay has been endured and the cordial liberality with which my wishes concerning illustrations and other matters have been consulted.

HAKOLD N. FOWLER.

Western Resehve IIniveksity,

Contents

Introduction. Materials and Methods of Sculpture

CHAPTER

I. Egyptian Sculpture

II 288 .301 316

CONTENTS rHAPTER

XXI. ScULPTnRE OF THE Rp;NArSSANCE IN SPAIN

PAGE

XXII. Modern Sctlpture in Italy, Denmark, Norway, AND Sweden 346

XXIII. Modern Sculpture in France and Belgium . 3.53

XXIV. Modern Sculpture in Germany, Spain, and

Russia 368

XXV. ]\Iodern Sculpture in Great Britain . . 378

XXVI. Sculpture in the United States . . . 388

XXVII. Sculpture in the Far East — India, China, and

Japan 407

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The Hermes of Praxiteles (Brunn-Bruckmann, Denkmdler, 466)

Frontispiece

NUMBER VhtiK

1. Palette of King Narmer (Borchardt, KunstiveHe cms dem

Aegyptiscken Museum zu Cairo, PI. lii) .... 3

2. Sheik el Beled. Cairo 5

3. Statue of Scribe. The Louvre, Paris 6

4. The Dwarf, Knemuhetep. Cairo 7

5. Upper Part of Diorite Statue of King Khaf ra ( Chephren) . Cairo 7

6. Mycerinus and his Queen. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts . 8

7. Wooden Panel from the Tomb of Hesy-re. Cairo . . .11

8. Relief from the Tomb of Sabu. Cairo. (Borchardt, K%aist-

werke aus dem Aegyptiscken Museum zu Cairo, PI. 22.) . 12

9. Upper Part of the Statue of King Araeneiiihet III. Cairo.

(Borchardt, Kunstwerke aus dem Aegyptiscken Museum zu

Cairo, PI. 6.) 15

10. Relief from the Tomb of Menthu-weser. Metropolitan Museum,

New York 16

11. Facade of Great Rock-hewn Temple at Abu Simbel ... 18

12. The Goddess Mut. Cairo. (Borchardt, Kunstwerke atis dem

Aegyptiscken Museum zu Cairo, PI. 13, ) . . . . 19

13. Reliefs in the Temple of Seti I at Abydos 20

14. Upper Part of Statuette of Queen Karomama. The Louvre,

Paris 21

15. Fragments of the " Vulture Stele. " The Louvre, Paris. (De

Saizec, Decouvertes en Chaldee, ¥1. S '>^'.) .... 25

16. Statue from Bismya. Constantinople 26

17. Stele of Naram-Sin. The Louvre, Paris 27

18. Statue of Gudea, from Lagash. The Louvre, Paris ... 28

19. Tablet of Nabu-aplu-iddin. British Museum .... 30

20. Asshurnazirpal and a Eunuch. British Museum ... 33

21. Asshurnazii-pal Hunting. British Museum .... 34

22. Relief from the Palace of Sargon II. The Louvre, Paris . . 36

23. Weight in the Form of a Bronze Lion. The Louvre, Paris . 37

24. Wounded Lioness. British Museum 38

xi xii IJST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

25. Asshurbanipal Drinking in a Garden. " British Museum . . 39

26. Inscribed Hittite Lion, from Marash. Constantinople . . 42

27. Archers. Persian Relief of Glazed Tile. The Louvre, Paris . 45

28. Persian Bull-Capital. The Louvre, Paris 46

29. Cypriote Sarcophagus ; about 550-500 B.C. Metropolitan Mu-

seum, New York 50

30. Cypriote Statue ; about 500 b.c. Metropolitan Museum, New

York 51

31. Fragment of Stucco Kelief. Museum at Candia. (Anmtal of

the British School at Athens, Yl\, \>. n .) .... 64

32. Harvest Vase. Museum at Candia. (Maraghianis, Antiquites

cretoises, I, pi. xxii.) ........ 55

.33. Lions of Mycenae. (Brunn-Bruckmann, Denknidler, PI. 151) . 55

34. Gold Cups from Vaphio. National Museum, Athens . . 66

35. Statuette of Gold and Ivory. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . 57 30. Apollo of Tenea. Munich. (Biiinn-Bruckmann, 1.) . . 60

37. Seated Figure from Branchidae. British Museum. (Brnnn-

38. Draped Figure of the Chian School. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

39. Pediment Group from the Treasury of the Siphnians. Delphi . 65

40. Figures from an Archaic Temple. Coroyra (Corfu) ... 66

41. Bronze Statuette from Piombino. The Louvre, Paris. (Brunn-

Bruckmann, 78.) 68

42. Relief from the Treasury of the Sicyonians. Delphi . . 69

43. Fallen Warrior from Aegina. Mimich. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 28.) 71

44. So-called Typhon. Acropolis Museum, Athens. (Brunn-

Bruckmann, 456a.) 72

45. Moschophorus. Acropolis Museum, Athens. (Brunn-Bruck-

46. Figures from Temple of Athena. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

47. Figure dedicated by Euthydicus. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

48. Harmodius and Aristogeiton. Naples . .■ . . .77

49. Choiseul-GoufBer " Apollo.'' British Museum . ... 78

50. Bronze Charioteer. Delphi ....... 80

51. Metope from the Temple of Zeus. Olympia. (Brunn-Bruck-

52. Pediments of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia ; Treu's Restora-

tion. (Luckenbach, Olympia vnd Delphi, ]i. 'iS.) . . 82

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xili

NUMBER

53. Victory by Paeonius. Olympia. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 444.)

54. Discobolus by Myron, as reconstructed in tiie National Museum

55. Athene and Marsyas, as restored in the Archaeological Museum

Munich

50. The Varvakeion Athena. National Museum, Athens

57. Bronze Head of Zeus. Vienna. (JahresheftP d. Oesterr.

Archaeol. Institutes, XIV, pi. ii.) ....

58. The Doryphorus of I'olyclitus. Naples. (Brunn-Bruckmann,

27.S, Ersatz.)

59. So-called Hera. National Museum, Athens. (Wald.stein, Ex

cavations . . . at the. Heraion of An/os, 1S93, pi. v.) (10. Metope of the Parthenon. British Museum. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 184.) .........

01. From the Eastern Frieze of the Parthenon. Acropolis Museum Athens. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 194.) ....

62. So-called Theseus, from the Parthenon. British Museum

63. So-called Fates, from the Parthenon. British Museum

(Brunn-Bruckmann, 190.) ......

64. Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon, as reconstructed by Karl

Sohwerzek, Vienna .......

65. Fragment of the Balustrade of the Temple of Athena Nike

Acropolis Museum, Athens ......

66. Caryatid from the Erechtheum. British Museum

67. So-called Mourning Athena. Athens .... 08. Heads from Tegea. National Museum, Athens. {Antike

Denkmdler, I, pi. 35 ; from casts.) ....

69. Cnidian Aphrodite, after Praxiteles. The "^'atioan. (Brunn-

Bruckmann, 371 ; from a cast.) .....

70. Satyr after Praxiteles. Capitoline Museum, Rome. (Brunn-

Bruckmann, 377.)

71. Apoxyomenos. The Vatican. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 281. )

Pl- xi.) ■

73. From the Frieze of the Mausoleum. British Museum

74. Sarcophagus of the Mourners. Constantinople ...

75. Monument of Hegeso. Athens. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 436.)

76. Alexander Sarcophagus. Constantinople ....

77. Demosthenes. The Vatican

78. Nike from Samothraoe. The Louvre, Paris.' (Brunn-Bruck

mann, 85, Ersatz.) .

XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

NUMBRR

T'.l. Aphrodite from Melos. The Louvre, Paris

80. " Athena Group " from the Great Altar at Pergamon. Berlin.

(Brunn-Bruckmann, 484.) .....

81. The Laocoiin. The Vatican. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 230.)

82. "Venus Genetrix." The Louvre, Paris. (Brunn-Bruck-

83. Sarcophagus from Sidamara. Constantinople .

84. Sarcophagus uf Seianti Thanunia. British Museum. (Antike

Denkmiih-r, I, pi. 20.)

85. Tlie " Arringatore." Florence. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 320. ) 80. Belief from the Altar of Peace. Lftizi Gallery, Florence

87. Decorative Scrollwork from the Altar of Peace. Uftizi Gallery,

88. Augustus, from Prima Porta. The Vatican 80. Panel of the Arch of Titus, Rome

90. Rehef on the Column of Trajan. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 400 ;

91. Bust of Antinous. The Louvre, Paris ....

92. Relief from the Base of the Colunni of Antoninus Pius. The

Vatican. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 210.)

93. Achilles and Peuthesilea ; Roman Sarcophagus. The Vatican

94. Colossal Bronze Statue at Barletta .....

9.5. Sarcopliagus in Ravenna .......

90. Ivory Reliefs from the " Throne uf Maxiniian." Ravenna

97. Panels of Bronze Door, Ravello .....

98. Group of Colunnis. Monreale ......

99. Pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa ; by Nicola Pisano .

100. Puljiit by Giovanni Pisano ; formerly in tlie Cathedral at Pisa

101. Tomb of Cardinal de Braye. Orvieto ....

102. Panels of the Bronze Door, by Andrea Pisano. (The Frieze

is by Vittorio Ghiberti, Son of Lorenzo.) .

103. The Creation and the Fall. Orvieto ....

104. Tomb of Can Signorio. Verona .....

105. Decoration of the Porta della Mandorla. Florence .

106. Capital from Clermont-Ferrand .....

107. Relief from St. ifctienne. Toulouse ....

108. Tympanum at V^zelay (from the cast in the Trocadero, Paris)

109. Part of the Facade of St. Trophime, Aries (from the cast in

the Trocadero, Paris) ....... 202

110 Statues of the Western Facade of Chartres .... ^;05

111. Statues of the Southern Porch of Chartres .... ^00

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv

112. Statues of the Western Fagade of Eheims . . . .207

113. Tympanum of the Southern Transept of Notre Dame, Paris;

Door of St. Stephen ; Second Halt of Thirteenth Century

(from the cast in the Trocad(5ro) 208

114. Southern Side Door, Amiens (the Vierge dor^e on tlie middle

support) 211

115. The Puits de Moise, Dijon (from the cast in the Trooadero,

Paris) 21.3

116. Mourners on the Tomb of John the Tearless, Dijon (from casts

in the Trooad^ro, Paris) 214

117. Tympanum of the " Goldene Pforte," Freiberg. (Photo.

Dr. F. Stoedtner, Berlin, NW.) 219

118. Tympanum from the " Georgenchor," Bamberg . . . 220

119. The Synagogue, Strassburg Cathedral. (Photo. Dr. F. Stoedt-

ner, Berlin, NW.) 222

120. Tempter and Tempted ; Foolish Virgins ; Strassburg Cathedral.

(Photo. Dr. F. Stoedtner, Beriin, NW.) . . . ,223

121. Tympanum of the Frauenkirche, Nuremberg (from a oast) . 225

122. Portal of Rochester Cathedral. (Photo. Mansell.) . . . 228

123. Part of Facade of Exeter Cathedral. (Photo. Mansell.) . 231

124. Tomb of Cardinal Langham, Westminster Abbey. (Photo.

Mansell.) 235

125. Part of the Chapel of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey. (Photo.

Mansell.) 230

126. English Alabaster Relief. Metropolitan Museum, New York 239

127. Santiago de Compostela, South Portal ; Figures from the

destroyed North Portal ....... 242

128. Santiago de Compostela ; the Gloria 243

129. Tympanum of S. Maria la Real, Sangiiesa .... 245

130. Sarcophagus of Queen Berenguela. Burgos .... 246

131. Cathedral of Burgos ; Puerta del Sarmental .... 247

132. Cathedral of Leon ; Statues of Western Portal . . .248

133. Alabaster Eetablo in the Style of Vallfngona. Metropolitan

Museum, New York ........ 255

134. Four Panels of Ghiberti's Earlier Door. Florence . . . 259

135. The Porta del Paradiso, by Ghiberti. Florence . . . 261

136. " II Zuccone," by Donatello. Florence 262

137. Choir Loft, by Donatello. Florence 263

138. Cupid in Trousers, Donatello. Florence . . . . . 264

139. Gattamelata, by Donatello. Padua 265

140. Panel of Choir Loft, by Luca della Robbia . . . .266 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

NUMBER PAGE

141. A Terra-cotta Altarpiece, by Luca della Robbia. Pesoia . 267

142. Assumption of the Virgin, by Nanni di Banco. Florence . 269

143. Angelic Musicians, by Agostino di Duccio. Perugia . . 270

144. Tomb of Count Ugo, Marchese di Tosoana, by Mino da Fiesole.

Florence 272

145. CoUeoni, by Verrocchio. Venice 274

146. Portal of San Petronio, Bologna, by Jacopo della Querela . 276

147. The Lamentation, by Mazzoni. Modena .... 279

148. The Judgment of Solomon. Doge's Palace, Venice . . 282

149. Tomb of Niccol6 Tron. Venice 28.3

150. Pietk, by Michael Angelo. Rome 290

161. David, by Michael Angelo. Florence ..... 291

152. Moses, by Michael Angelo. Rome 292

15.3. Tomb of Giuliauo del Medici, by Michael Angelo. Florence . 293

154. The Rape of the Sabines, by Giovanni Bologna. Florence . 297

155. Apollo and Daphne, by Bernini. Home 299

156. St. George and the Dragon, by Michel Colombe. The Louvre,

157. Death and Funeral of the Virgin ; Choir Screen, Cathedi-al of

Chartres . 306

158. The Entombment, by Ligier Richier. Saint^Mihiel . . 307

159. Nymphe, by Jean Goujon. Fountain of the Innocents, Paris . 308

160. Tomb of Henry II and Catherine des Medicis, by Germain

Pilon, St. Denis- 309

161. Nymphs Bathing, by Girardon, Versailles .... 310

162. Marie Leczinska, by Guillaunie Coustou. The Louvre, Paris 312

163. The Fifth Station of the Cross, by Adam Kraft. Nuremberg.

(Photo. Dr. F. Stoedtner, Berlin, NW.) . . . .318

164. Bronze Statue of King Arthur, by Peter Vischer. Innsbruck 319

165. The Creglingen Altarpiece, by Tilman Rieniensohneider.

(Photo. Dr. F. Stoedtner, Berlin, NW.) .... .320

166. A Workman, by Jorg Syrlin the Elder, Munich . . .321

167. St. Matthew. Blutenburg 323

168. The Great Elector, by Schlilter. Berlin 325

169. Choir screen at Tournai, by Cornells de Vriendt . . . 330

170. The Tomb of Sir Francis Vere, by Stone. Westminster Abbey 333

171. Portal of the Hospital of Santa Cruz, Toledo .... 337

172. Tomb of Juan II and Isabella of Portugal. Miraflores, near

Burgos 33g

173. The Crucifixion. Part of an Altarpiece, by Felipe de Borgofia.

Burgos 341

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

NUMBER PAOI

174. Altarpieoe by Felipe de Borgona. Granada .... 342

175. Head of St. John the Baptist, by Alonso Cano. Granada . 344

176. Cupid and Psyche, by Canova. The Louvre, Paris . . 847 ' 177 . Venus, by Thorvaldsen. Copenhagen 351

178. Jeanne d'Arc, by Rude. The Louvre, Paris .... 864

179. A Florentine Singer, by Dubois. The Luxembourg, Paris . 357

180. The Republic, by Dalou. Paris 359

181. Monument to the Dead, by Bartholom^. Paris . . . 861

182. The Thinker, by Rodin 363

183. The Stevedore, by Meunier. The Luxembourg, Paris . . 366

184. Von Ziethen, by Sohadow. Berlin 369

185. The Rhine and the Moselle. From the Germania-Denkmal,

by Schilling. Rildesheim 371

186. Mounted Amazon, by Tuaillon. Berlin 374

187. Pandora, by Bates. Tate Gallery, London . . . .382

188. The Sluggard, by Leighton. Tate Gallery, London . . 384

189. Peter Pan ; bronze by Frampton. Kensington Gardens, Lon-

don 38£

190. Abraham Lincoln, by St. Gaudens. Chicago .... 39S

191. The Mourning Victory, by French. Melvin Memorial, Con-

cord, Mass. (Photo. A. W. Elson & Co., Boston.) . . . 397

192. The End of the Trail, by Fraser. Exhibited at the Panama

Exposition . . . ' 401

193. Appeal to the Great Spirit, by Dallin. Boston . . . 40S

194. Kuan Yin. Chinese ; Late Sixth or Early Seventh Century ;

Stone ; above Life Size. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . 414

195. Seishi paying Reverence to a Soul newly arrived in Paradise.

Wooden Statuette. Kamakflra Period. Museum of Fine

Ai-ts, Boston 417

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS OF SCULPTURE

Definitions. — Sculpture may be defined as the art of representation in solid material and in three dimensions. This definition is very general and for the purpose of this book needs some limitation. That which is represented may be a human figure, a group of figures, any natural object, an idea of the sculptor, a mere pattern, or even, in an extreme case, a plain surface. The size of the work may be colossal or it may be almost infinitesimal. In general parlance, and in this book, the works of gem cutters, cameo cutters, seal engravers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths are not included under the designation of sculpture. They really are sculpture, but their small size demands peculiar technical processes and a treatment in many respects quite unlike that which is fitting for larger works. So, too, architectural mouldings, linear patterns, finials, the channels cut in columns, and the like, although they may be regarded as forms of sculpture, are generally excluded. In this book only those branches of sculpture will be considered which represent the forms of human beings or animals, real or imaginary, or (in special cases) of plants. As a rule we shall consider only figure sculpture.

Works of sculpture so made that they can be approached or seen from all sides are said to be carved or modelled in the round, but if the figures or designs are not separated from their background, they are said to be in relief. Low relief (bos relief, basso rilievo) projects but slightly from the background, middle relief (demi relief, mezzo rilievo) somewhat more, and high relief {Jiaiit relief, alto rilievo) still more. If a relief projects less than half the natural thickness of the

XX INTRODUCTION

beings or objects represented, it is usually called low relief, and if more than half the natural thickness, high relief.

Sculpture which forms part of a larger whole, such as a building, and which depends in any great measure upon its relation to that whole for its effect, is called decorative sculpture.^ The term " substantive sculpture " has been proposed for sculpture which is complete in itself.

Materials — Work in Clay. — The materials most frequently used in sculpture are wood, clay, stone, and metal. These have been used in all ages, though not with equal frequency at different times and in different places. The methods employed have changed with the progress of civilization. Perhaps the most universally used material is clay. This is moistened to a proper degree of softness, then moulded with the hands into the desired shape. The marks of the fingers may then be removed, and the surface made smooth, with a damp cloth, a piece of leather, or a smooth piece of wood. If the work is to be permanent, it is then allowed to dry and is baked or fired in an oven. The result is a work in terra-cotta. If the work is large, the clay is likely to crack in the firing, unless the image (or whatever the object is) has been made hollow. Usually, therefore, terra-cotta figures are not modelled solid and then fired, but the original figure is used as a matrix and a mould is made from it. The mould is then fired, and figures are made by pressing the soft clay into the terra-cotta mould, which is in several pieces, and thus the figure as finally put in the oven is made of a number of thin pieces of clay carefully joined together. The details of the process have varied at different times.

In modern times, in the period of the Renaissance, and in ancient Greece and Rome after the fourth century B.C. (or about that time), a clay model has been made before a work of sculpture has been executed in stone of any kind, in

■ Sometimes the term "decorative sculpture" is used as the equivalent of "ornament," to designate ornamental designs which do not include figures of human beings or the like. It is better, however, to use the word "ornament" or to say "pure decoration" or "purely decorative work" or something of the kind.

INTRODUCTION xxi

metal, or even, as a general thing, in wood. The clay model is then transferred to the other material. The processes by which this is done will be very briefly sketched below.

Work in Wood. — Sculpture in wood (any close-grained wood may be used) is executed with saws, knives, drills, and chisels of various shapes. The development of the tools has accompanied the progress of the art. The beginnings of the process of making a work of sculpture in wood, and the method of transferring the clay model, when such a model is used, into wood are virtually the same as the corresponding steps in the execution of a stone work and need not be separately described.

Kinds of Stone — Egypt. — The kind of stone available at different times and places has had no little effect upon sculpture. The Egyptians had at their disposal excellent limestone, fine-grained and not too hard, which is, however, not very strong. The result was the early development of really fine carving, but, since the stone was not strong, the statues were often not cut free from the block of which they formed a part. Possibly, too, the clumsy ankles of many Egyptian statues may be due to the weakness of the stone and the sculptor's fear lest he ruin his work by trying to make the ankles slender. The Egyptian liking for very low relief may also be due in part to the quality of the limestone. For especially ostentatious works the Egyptians employed granite and basalt, hard stones which must have been very difficult to work with the imperfect tools of the early periods. The sculpture in these materials is finished with exquisite care ; the smooth surfaces are highly polished ; but there is an evident avoidance of deep grooves or cuttings. This may well be, in part at least, because deep cuttings were very difficult to make.

Kinds of Stone — Babylonia, Assyria, Greece — Implements used. — In Babylonia there was virtually no stone except what was imported. Nevertheless there was a good deal of sculpture in stone. If basalt or some other hard stone was used, the Babylonian sculptor polished his work and avoided deep cuttings, and if the stone was less refracxxii INTRODUCTION

tory the tendency was toward deeper cuttings in statues and liigher relief. In Assyria tlie alabaster employed was sometimes too soft ; so in the reliefs of Sargon's palace at Khorsabad the carving is not delicate and finely finished, but the edges look as if cut with a knife, not carved with mallet and chisel. The stone used by the Hittites is usually coarse-grained, and this fact may have something to do with the inferiority of their sculpture. In Greece various kinds of stone were used in early times, but by the middle of the sixth century B.C. marble was almost exclusively employed. The so-called "poros" stone used for the earliest sculptures at Athens is soft and not ^ery fine. It can be cut with a knife, and apparently the method of carving it did not differ greatly from that used in carving wood. The tools were knives, a saw, and chisels, the latter being both flat and curved (gouges) . These tools were sometimes merely pushed with the hand, sometimes struck with a mallet. When marble was used, the tools were a pointed hammer, or a pointed instrument to be struck with a mallet, a gouge or curved chisel, a claw chisel, and files and sand for polishing. In the fifth century B.C. drills were introduced and from that time they were much used, especially in representing hair and the folds of drapery. The shapes of some of the tools have been changed, but in general the implements used are much the same to-day as in antiquity. Now, however, machinery is freely employed.

Stone Sculpture — Early Methods. — The early sculptors in Greece, as in Egj^pt and the Asiatic countries, employed simple methods and did not mould clay models to be transferred to stone. If a relief w^as to be made, the artist drew the outlines on the front of a slab of stone and then cut away the superfluous material, so that the figures remained standing forth from the background. Naturally no figure could project farther than the original surface of the slab, but the background could be cut away to any depth less than the thickness of the stone. The extreme outer portions of the figures therefore tend to be in one plane (the original surface), whereas the background may be in several

INTRODUCTION xxiii

planes. In modern times the sculptor makes his clay model on a flat slab ; his background therefore tends to be flat, and there is less likelihood that the extreme projections will be in one plane. Reliefs in early times were always colored, and the carving was often little more than a means of accentuating the outlines and suggesting the shadows of the painting; Egyptian, Assyrian, and early Greek reliefs are, probably for this reason, generally in low relief.

Stone Sculpture — Early and Later Methods. — The sculptor of a statue in the round employed similar simple methods. Taking a block of quadrangular section, he drew on the front the outline of the figure desired, as seen from the front, and on the sides the outline of the side view of the figure. Then he cut away the stone not included in these outlines, working straight in until the cutting from front to back intersected that from side to side. He then had a rough, angular statue, which he could finish by rounding off the corners and working out details according to his ability. The practice of using clay models and transferring them to stone was, apparently, not introduced in Greece until the fifth century B.C., and probably did not become general until much later. It may have been employed in Egypt somewhat, but not much, earlier than in Greece. In the Middle Ages the stone used for sculpture was usually, except in Italy where marble was employed, the local building stone. The methods were simple, like those of the Egyptians and the early Greeks. Obviously such methods leave far more responsibility for the success of a large work in the hands of the stone-cutter (and correspondingly less in those of the designer) than the method by which the stone-cutter makes a mechanical copy of the designer's full-sized models. In modern times ^ the sculptor makes a clay model from which he makes a plaster cast. The important projections and depressions are marked in this cast

1 The modern methods, both for marble and bronze work, are treated in detail by Albert Toft, Modelling and Sculpture, 1911. A briefer aocount of them is given in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v. "Sculpture" and " Metal-working."

xxiv INTRODUCTION

by metal pins, called points, and an ingenious device called the pointing machine makes it possible to mark the corresponding points in the block of marble. The marble is then cut away to all the points marked. The number of such points may be very great, in which case the statue is nearly finished when all the points are reached. In fact, many sculptors of modern times are merely modellers. They send their models to the stone-cutter, who, with the help of the pointing machine and other contrivances, makes an accurate copy. The more careful sculptors add the finishing touches themselves, but very few do any great amount of chiselling.

Sculpture in Bronze. — The metal chiefly employed in sculpture is bronze, a composition of copper and tin.^ Other metals are used occasionally, but they are either too expensive, or not strong enough in proportion to their weight, or not adapted to fine work. Even in very early times bronze statuettes and small reliefs were made, but the statuettes were cast solid and the reliefs were beaten over a core or model of wood or stone {repousse) and finished with a sharp tool. Such methods are not suitable for statuary. Solid bronze statues are too costly and too heavy ; moreover they are likely to crack in cooling. Some early statues were made of sheets of bronze beaten over a wooden core and fastened together with rivets (sphyrelaton), or cast in separate pieces and welded together, but these must have lacked strength, besides being disfigured by numerous sutures. Large figures of bronze must be cast hollow, and the making of hollow castings was known in Egypt at an early date and introduced into Greece about the middle of the sixth century

B.C.

A solid casting is easily made ; the molten metal is run into a mould which is broken and removed when the metal has hardened. But if a hollow casting is to be made, an inner core, as well as an outer mould, must be prepared,

' The proportions vary, and small quantities of zinc, aluminum, silver, and other metals are sometimes present in bronze ; but copper is always the chief constituent and tin is indispensable.