A history of painting in Italy; Umbria, Florence and Siena from the second to the sixteenth century

Front matter

V.I

CORNELL university:

LIBRARIES

Preface

TT is unnecessary to make any apology for this second edition of the History of Painting in Italy. Notwithstanding all that has been done in the last forty years, by archivists on the one hand, and by connoisseurs on the other, with the object of elucidating the history of the central Italian schools, this book still remains the standard authority upon the subject. Of genuine additions to knowledge, of scientifically verifiable facts accepted as such by all serious and intelligent students, how little has been added to that particular fabric of human learning which owed so much to Crowe and Cavalcaselle ! Much that passed for knowledge a decade ago has been proved to be unfounded theory : and, were it not unwise to prophesy, we would venture to predict that, in the coming decade, the field of art criticism will be strewn with the wreckage of many other pretentious but cheaply-built structures.

The public demand for the first edition has gone on increasing up to the present time, and in recent years second-hand copies of the book have commanded extravi PEEFACE

ordinarily high prices. This demand cannot have been due to the outward form of the volumes — for the History of Painting in Italy had few of the adornments of the modern art book — nor can it have been occasioned by any graces of style that the work possessed. The one explanation of it is that Crowe and Cavalcaselle's History is indispensable to the serious student.

The present edition, moreover, is much more than a mere reissue. It has, in a great measure, the character of a new work. With the assistance of the Cav. G. B. Cavalcaselle, Sir Joseph Crowe had, for some years previous to 1896, been engaged in preparing a new edition of the History. When this work was interrupted by his death he had entirely rewritten more than a third of the book, and had collected a great store of important material relating to the later periods. We publish the authors' text and notes as they left them, merely making ordinary proof-reader's corrections. In the notes marked with an asterisk we have added the results of our own researches, and such genuine discoveries as have been made in recent years by other students of Italian painting.

Before Mr. S. Arthur Strong, with the approval of Mr. Murray and the representatives of the late Sir Joseph Crowe, invited me to collaborate with him in the completion of this work, I had been engaged for some years in collecting material in Italy for a new critical edition of Vasari's Lives, an undertaking which I had dreamed of, I do not like to say how long ago, when as a boy -student

PREFACE vii

I had come under the direct influence of Mr. Ruskin. Through no fault of my own, my scheme came to nothing ; and when, in the year 1899, I was asked to join Mr. Strong in the work of editing this book, I gladly accepted the invitation. In the earlier stages of the preparation of these volumes Mr. Strong took an active part. He has, however, been prevented by illness from correcting the final proofs, and cannot, therefore, be held responsible for any mistakes to be found in them. It is to be hoped that the remaining volumes of this edition will be enriched by the fruits of his wide study of Italian pictures and drawings, by his fine connoisseurship, and his archaeological and ieonographical erudition.

Our thanks are due to many directors of galleries for their kindness in facilitating our researches. We wish to express our gratitude to Sir Walter Armstrong, Dr. Wilhelm Bode, M. Alfred Cartier, Mr. F. E. Earp, Dr. Georg Gothe, Dr. Friedlander, Dr. Lippmann, Dr. Karl Madsen, Dr. Ettore Modigliani, Sir Edward Poynter, Dr. Corrado Ricci, Dr. Oswald Sirdn, Professor Adolfo Venturi, and Professor York Powell, librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, as well as to the learned directors of the Hungarian National Gallery, the Magyar Nemzeti Museum, and the galleries of Oxford, Nancy and Munich. We desire also to thank the private collectors who have rendered us* assistance, and especially Lady Wantage, Lord Balcarres, Mr. E. H. Benson, Mr. Herbert Cook, Mr. Charles Loeser, Mr. C. Fairfax Murray, and Sir C. Hubert H. Parry. To viii PKEFACE

Mr. S. A. J. Churchill, British Consul-General for Sicily, to Signer N. Mengozzi, and to Professor Zdekauer, we are indebted for various kind offices, and to the Minister of Public Instruction for Italy for the photographs of the newly -discovered frescoes at S. Cecilia- in -Trastevere, as well as for granting us access to those important works.

LANGTON DOUGLAS

BIOGRAPHIES OF THE AUTHORS

JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE

TOSEPH AECHEE CEO WE was born in London on October ^ 20th, 1825. He was no parvemo of connoisseurship. The formation of an educated taste takes time : it cannot be done in a hurry — as some pathetically imagine who in adult life career round Europe striving, as they phrase it, "to get culture." Crowe inherited a love of art. His early home, too, was in no modern Bceotia, but in Paris, the metropolis of art; where his father, a struggling man of letters, took up his residence when Joseph was nine years of age. The future art-historian's whole environment was favourable to the development of sesthetic discrimination. Artists frequented his father's house. His elder brother Eyre early gave evidences of artistic gifts, and the two boys visited together studios and galleries. Finally, when he was fifteen years of age, Joseph Crowe, following his brother's example, joined the atelier of Paul Delaroche, thus becoming a fellowstudent of G^rSme, Yvon, and Ingres. It soon became evident that his true vocation was that of a connoisseur and historian of painting rather than that of an artist. Like his future co-worker Cavalcaselle, he often absented himself from the atelier to visit a picture gallery. He early began his career as a style-critic by spending long mornings in the Louvre, engaged in the careful study of the paintings and drawings in that great collection. Like

X BIOGEAPHIES OF THE AUTHORS

Cavalcaselle, he was a Morellian before Morelli. "It was my ambition," he writes, " to distinguish one painter from another by studying his peculiarities of drawing, touch, finish, and general execution."

Whilst still a youth Crowe visited some of the chief German galleries, and in them acquired further practice as a connoisseur. He found that his days in Delaroche's atelier had not been misspent. For some kind of artistic training is essential to an art-critic or art-historian of the highest order : a fact which is often -overlooked by critics who lay claim to a superfine taste and an extraordinary gift of aesthetic judgment. Not only was the knowledge of technical processes that he had acquired there of permanent value to him in his work ; it was also a great advantage to a critic, in the days before the perfecting of photography, to be able to make a rapid sketch of any picture, or detail of a picture, of which he wished to have a record.

In the year 1843, Crowe's father returned to London as leaderwriter of the Morning Chronicle. The young man now adopted his father's profession and became a London journalist. At the same time he did not renounce altogether the vocation for which he was best fitted, but devoted whatever time he could spare from more remunerative work to the study of the works of the early Flemish masters. It was in the summer of 1847, whilst he was on a holiday on the Continent, spending his time in travelling from gallery to gallery, that he first met an Italian art-student, some five years his senior, who was engaged in similar studies to his own, Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle. In a post-carriage in Westphalia began an acquaintance which was fruitful of results in the history of art-criticism. After passing some hours together in the Berlin Museum, the two young men parted company, Crowe setting out for Italy, where, with his father as travelling-companion, he visited Venice, Florence and other cities. On his return he continued his preparation of the Early Flemish Painters. For some time, however, he was able to make but little

JOSEPH AECHEE CEOWE xi

progress. The effort to make a living by journalism absorbed almost aU his time and energy. In the year 1852 he took up his abode with Cavalcaselle, who had lost his property in his country's cause, and was now a political refugee, struggling to maintain himself as a draughtsman in London. With Cavalcaselle's help, Crowe's projected work advanced more rapidly. The two enthusiasts visited together galleries and private collections, and worked side by side in great libraries. Their manner of life at this time has well been described by Crowe himself in his Reminiscences: "To see and judge of panels and canvases, and confirm or contest my opinions respecting them, was Cavalcaselle's main share in the history of the Flemish painters. He helped me at the British Museum in copying extracts, and was full of zeal at this sort of work. He had also an amazing insight into the periods of a master's career, his early form as well as his middle and later time ; and aU this would be discussed and argued, and be the subject sometimes of acrimonious debate between us. But the time always came when he or I yielded, and then, the question being decided, I adopted it and set it in its proper order in the narrative which, like all others bearing our joint names, was entirely written by myself. But the place in which these struggles occurred, the season in which they happened, the privations which we both endured during this occurrence, have never been known. Our working-room, which contained a round table and three chairs, was not more than twenty feet square. In the morning we breakfasted on tea and bread; dinner was uncertain, supper equally so. We husbanded our resources carefully: bought our tea by the pound at Twining's, and made it last as long as possible; had no fire, and kept ourselves warm by coverings. Two candles served for light in the evenings. One day in spring, 1853, even the tea gave out, and the morning roll was not forthcoming. The day before Cavalcaselle and I had no dinner. Hunger made us wake early. It was about six or seven in the morning when xii BIOGEAPHIES OF THE AUTHORS

we rose. The sun was shining brightly. We dressed, got down in the street, thence into the parks. In Kensington we rested on a bench under the trees, enjoying the air, when there came up to us a very ragged individual, who begged us to take pity on him as he had had no breakfast. I looked at Cavalcaselle and laughed out right as I thought which was worst off of us three."

The work was well advanced towards completion when, in the summer of 1853, on the recommendation of Thackeray, Crowe was sent to the Crimea as special correspondent of the Illustrated London News. He was present at the bombardment of Sebastopol and at the battles of Balaclava and Inkermann. On his return from the war, he corrected the proof-sheets of the Early Flemish Painters, which had been accepted by Mr. Murray. The book was published on the last day of the year 1856, and was well received by the critics and the public.

Before its publication Crowe, finding it difficult to make a livelihood in London, had already resolved to try his fortune in India. Having some hopes of obtaining the headship of the Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy School of Art, he set out for the East. He obtained the post that he sought, but after having occupied it with success for two years, his Indian career was cut short by ill-health. Whilst at Bombay he had been appointed Indian correspondent of the Times, and immediately upon his arrival in England he was given other work by the editor, Mr. Mowbray Morris. Crowe was appointed war correspondent on the Austrian side in the Austro-French war ; and in this capacity was present at the battle of Solferino.

Shortly after his return to London, Crowe was sent by Lord John Eussell to Germany on a diplomatic mission. He did his work so well that in the following year, that is in 1860, he was appointed consul-general at Leipzig. It was during this period of residence in Germany that he met his future wife the Fraulein Asta von Barby, stepdaughter of Otto von

JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE xiii

Holtzendorff, Oberstaatsanwalt of Gotha, whom he married shortly after his appointment to the consulate-general.

Crowe was now able to pursue more uninterruptedly his favourite studies — studies which he had continued from time to time during his visits to Italy and Germany. He began the active preparation of a work which he had long planned, his New History of Fainting in Italy. His old coadjutor Cavalcaselle had already been in Italy again for four years, during which time he had been indefatigable in research. It had been Cavalcaselle's intention to prepare an English edition of Vasari with critical notes. But that scheme feU through, and he now resumed again his partnership with Crowe, with the result that the first volume of the new work was published in 1864. This book was followed by the authors' History of Painting in North Italy, Venice, Padua, Vicenza, etc., which saw the light in 1871.

In the following year Crowe was appointed Consul-General for WestphaHa and the Ehenish provinces. His able discharge of his consular duties led to his being made commercial attach^ for the whole of Europe, a post he held for sixteen years, residing first at Berlin and afterwards at Paris. In this capacity he was called upon to negotiate treaties, and to serve upon various commissions appointed for dealing with international commerce. In recognition of his services to his country he was made, in 1890, a Knight-Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George.

During the whole of the last thirty years of his life, Crowe continued his study of art history. In the year 1877 he had finished, with Cavalcaselle's co-operation, a monograph on Titian. Six years later the two authors had published the first volume of a similar work on Eaphael, of which the second volume appeared in 1885. Crowe also edited English editions of Burckhardt's Cicerone and Kligler's Handbook of Painting : The German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. Finally he set about preparing a second edition of his New History of Painting in Italy. This work was interrupted by his death, which took place in 1896, a few 6 xiv BIOGEAPHIES OF THE AUTHORS

months after he had resigned his post of commercial attach^ for Europe.

Neither Crowe nor Cavalcaselle founded a coterie, or was the centre of a mutual-help society. They never allowed their aesthetic judgment to be warped by personal or pecuniary considerations. They were always able to give weighty and definite reasons for their attributions, and were never content to substitute a subtle form of personal abuse for sound argument. Moreover, neither of the co-workers belonged to that parasitic, cosmopolitan class from which the writers of little art-books are frequently drawn. Crowe, like CavalcaseUe, was a virile, strenuous worker, and rendered signal public service to his country. It is to be regretted that he did not live to enjoy his hard- won leisure, and that he had to leave to others the completion of the present work.

II. Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle

Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle was born at Legnago, in the valley of the Adige, on January 22nd, 1820. Whilst yet a boy he was inspired by the two emotions which influenced him throughout the whole course of his life — patriotism and a love of his country's art. He became a student at the Accademia delle Belle Arti at Venice, and hoped to become a painter. But he soon showed that his true vocation was that of the connoisseur and art historian ; and already in his youth he began the study of the masterpieces of what is perhaps the greatest, and is certainly the most lovable, of all schools of painting — the Venetian.

For some time his relations entertained the hope that he might become an engineer, and with that object he was sent

GIOVAJSTNI BATTISTA CAVALCASELLE xv

to Padua. But he never really renounced his favourite pursuit, and in the year 1844 he recommenced his artistic studies in earnest. He visited the cities of Tuscany, and ultimately set out to see the treasures of Italian art in foreign countries. It was whilst he was travelling in Germany that he met in a post - carriage, hetween Hamm and Minden, Joseph Archer Crowe. The two young men were mutually attracted to each other, and in the Berlin Museum, as we have already related, they first studied together some works of the great masters.

After his travels in Germany, CavalcaseUe returned to Venice, and in the memorable year 1848 he was one of the band of young men who rallied round Manin, determined to devote themselves, under his leadership, to the cause of Itahan freedom. As an agent of the Venetian patriot, CavalcaseUe travelled through Venetia and Lombardy, helping to rouse the population to rebellion against the Austrian rule. Finally he was arrested by Austrian gendarmes, tried by court-martial, and sentenced to death. On the morning fixed for the execution CavalcaseUe and three companions, also condemned to death, were in a chapel of the cathedral of Piacenza awaiting their summons. First one of his comrades was taken out to be shot. An hour later another was led out to his death. Shortly after that a third was escorted out of the Duomo. CavalcaseUe believed that his own summons would immediately foUow. But a few minutes later, not Austrian soldiers, but victorious Itahan insurgents burst into the cathedral, and the artist was saved.

The young patriot's troubles, however, were not over. He joined the forces of Garibaldi, and was taken prisoner by the French in 1849. He arrived at Paris in a miserable pHght. There he met Crowe again, and with his help was enabled to reach London.

For some time after this CavalcaseUe was in great poverty. His property at Legnago had been sequestrated. He was no longer able to pursue, undisturbed by pecuniary anxieties, the xvi BIOGRAPHIES OF THE AUTHORS

studies he loved. He had a small periodical remittance from his relations in Italy, but that was utterly inadequate for his needs, and the pittance that he earned as a draughtsman was not sufScient to relieve him from anxiety and even from actual want.

About this time, Crowe, as we have seen, himself suffered reverses of fortune. And the two young men decided to occupy rooms together in Silver Street, Regent Street. It was then that their partnership in authorship really began. They worked together on a history of early Flemish painters, for which Crowe had begun to collect materials some years before. A description of the hardships the two friends suffered at this period and of their methods of study has already been given in Crowe's own words in the preceding biography.

In the spring of 1853 Cavalcaselle's position began to improve. Sir Charles Eastlake discovered his merits and frequently consulted him. He obtained more regular work as a draughtsman and an expert. On the last day of the year 1856 Mr. Murray published the Early Flemish Painters, which had been finished some time previously. The publication of this book added considerably to the reputation of both authors, and Mr. Murray was so pleased with its reception that he engaged Cavalcaselle to prepare another important work. It was proposed that he should provide the notes of a new English edition of Vasari's Lives ; and, in order to enable him to collect material in Italy, the publisher gave him an allowance. Armed with an English safe-conduct, Cavalcaselle set out for Italy in the year 1857. After a time the allowance was withdrawn. Nevertheless, Cavalcaselle continued his labours. lU-clad, and living on the humblest fare, he wandered about the peninsula collecting stores of artistic knowledge. In the meantime Crowe had not been idle. He had continued in German galleries the studies which he had formerly pursued in Italy. The projected edition of Vasari came to nothing. The two friends again entered into

GIOVANNI BATTISTA CAVALCASELLE xvii

partnership, and produced together the Nma History of Italian Painting, which saw the light in the year 1864.

Cavaleaselle had now permanently settled in Italy. A year before the publication of the History he had written a monograph on the Conservazione dei monumenii e oggetti di helle arti. This work gained for him the post of Ispettore di BeUe Arti, an office which he held until the year 1895.

For the last thirty years of his life Cavaleaselle lived the quiet life of a student. Of the other works he published in conjunction with 'Crowe, the History of Painting in North Italy and the monographs on Titian and Eaphael, we have already spoken. He spent his closing years in preparing an Italian edition of the New History of Painting in Italy, a work he did not live to complete. In the autumn of 1897 he was taken suddenly ill whilst on a railway journey. He died on the last day of October, in the hospital of S. Antonio, at Eome.

Cavaleaselle was a modest, retiring scholar, whose ardent patriotism impelled him to take for a time an active part in political life. He did not make either of patriotism or of connoisseurship a profitable trade. Being neither a placehunter, nor a picture-dealer in masquerade, he never attained to affluence. Whilst Crowe had a wider knowledge of art in general than his co-worker, and contributed a great deal more than the literary form to every work he issued, Cavaleaselle had a more complete knowledge of Italian schools. He was, in fact, the greatest connoisseur of the painting of Italy that ever lived. He had, in something near perfection, the connoisseur's eye and the connoisseur's memory; and, in his case, pecuniary interests and the desire of wealth and position did not prevent him from using in the best possible way his great natural gifts. His extraordinary memory enabled him to do without the help of photographs more than less richly endowed critics are able to accomplish with all the modern aids to study. At the same time he placed a proper value upon documentary evidence, basing his conclusions xviu BIOGRAPHIES OF THE AUTHORS

on all the available testimony. It was, perhaps, his natural modesty that led him to take Vasari too seriously, and to rate too highly the evidence of tradition. The researches of archivists like Dr. Ludwig have tended to confirm many of the judgments of Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and to overthrow the too readily accepted theories of some of their critics. Sometimes, too, when connoisseurs have put forth as new and original some striking attribution, it has been found subsequently that their conclusions had been anticipated by the authors of the New History of Painting in Italy.

As a patriot whose martyrdom was lifelong — for the loss of his property hampered him continually in the studies he loved — Cavalcaselle merits the gratitude of his own people whose liberty he helped to win. His work as a scientific student has made all throughout the world who are interested in the history of art his debtors.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

GRADUAL RISE OP THE ART OF FLORENCE . . . . 173