Herbert Spencer

Front matter

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

LIBRARIES

ITHACA, N. Y. 14853

Preface

I HAVE pleasure in making acknowledgments of assistance (mostly unconscious) rendered me in the preparation of this volume by many of Herbert Spencer's friends. My estimate of his character is based, not only on a careful study of all his published works, and of works written about him by others, but on conversations carried on, many of them years ago, with such friends of Spencer as Lord and Lady Courtney, Mrs. Sidney Webb, Mrs. Henry Hobhouse, the late Mrs. Meinertzhagen, Mr. Henry Tedder, Sir Ray Lankester, the late Dr. Charlton Bastian, Mr. Geoffrey Williams (Spencer's publisher), the late Mr. Thomas Mackay, and others. The view I have presented of Spencer, however, is my own.

I have to thank the Herbert Spencer Trustees for permission to publish a letter ; and also Mr. Geoffrey Williams for showing me the letter ; and more particularly for lending me a copy of the original and private edition of the Autobiography, of which six copies only were printed in all. I have to thank him further for the loan of a copy of the suppressed book "The Nature and ReaUty of Religion," which is now altogether unobtainable.

H. E.

Contents

PAGB

General Editor's Preface ..... v

Preface vii

Introduction

The relation of philosophy to war is a question that has occupied many of the most powerful minds in all countries through all ages. The study of that question has lately received a new impetus on account of the terrible events now in progress throughout the continent of Europe. Wide interest has been centred upon the works of those German thinkers who represent, and who are partially responsible for, that morbid state of mind which seeks gratification in wars of conquest and the military organisation of society. Nietzsche, Bernhardi, and Treitschke have been constantly cited as typical of the degrading mihtarism of modern Germany. It is perhaps true that the first-named of these writers has been somewhat unjustly accused, and that we should regard Fichte and Hegel rather than Nietzsche as the true philosophic apostles of German militarism. However this may be, it is clear that many of the leading German philosophers have regarded militarism with a friendly eye.

People in general scarcely realise how difierent has been the outlook of English philosophers. It is natural that the country most abandoned to the ideals of mihtarism should have produced the philosophers most sympathetic to those ideals. We in this country sometimes forget that we have in the past been the least mihtary (though, as Moltke said, perhaps the most warlike) of all the nations of Europe. And many are scarcely aware that the inain philosophic attacks upon the doctrines of militarism have come from English thinkers, and reached their climax last century in the writings of Herbert Spencer. If we have studied the works of those German authors who are said to have brought on the present conflagration, we ought surely to study also the works of our own philosopher, who long ago foresaw the goal of European policy, and contended with all his might to stem the tide before it was too late.

For undoubtedly the main interest of Spencer's works at present is on the social side. His scientific and evolutionary writings have already become part of the " atmosphere " of modern thought, in the sense that they scarcely need to be taught, but constitute the fQundjjiQn upon which more recent i^eas are built. But his social writings have not in the same way become axiomatic. On the contrary, the political tendencies before the war were all hostile to Spencer's teaching. It

INTRODUCTION 3

appears highly probable that, after the war, political currents will again run in favour of Spencerian ethics, if for no other reason because State-economy will be the order of the day, and State-economy is at the root of Spencer's social philosophy. At all events, it seems to be clear that the social policy against which Spencer fought is now bankrupt. It has failed, and its failure threatens to ruin Europe for a generation. It does not follow, indeed, that Spencer's jogmatic individualism will henceforth be triumphantly established : that can never be. But it does foUow that certain , important truths or principles, which he emphasised, will when shorn of their dogmatism occupy a far larger part of the field of attention than heretofore. Spencer's position in philosophy is a comparatively isolated one. He received little from the writings of previous philosophers, but much from the science of his own time. Nevertheless his philosophic affinities were with the naturalistic, and even the materialistic, thinkers of the past, rather than with the idealists or the metaphysicians. Let it not be supposed that I use the word " materialism " in its degraded popular signification. I use it only in illustration of that tendency towards hard facts and practical common sense which has been so eminently characteristic of Scottish and English philosophers in the past. In his purely scientific writings, as in his social writings, Spencer was peculiarly an English philosopher. He could nol read German : he loathed German philosophers and such part of his controversial writings as were not devoted to the condemnation of the Prussiar type of militarism and socialism were occupied largely with attacks upon German metaphysics, Of all great thinkers, he owed less to German influence than any other who can be named. His philosophy was wholly English by spirit and descent, save perhaps for some resemblances to the Scottish school of Realism. His social philosophy, pivoting on Hberty and the limitations of State-duties, is so pre-eminently English that it is impossible to imagine the production of such a work in any other race of people. Seeing that we are already well acquainted with the writings of Treitschke and Bernhardi, with the aims and spirit of the German people, may we not now with advantage turn to study the philosopher who, more than any other, expresses our own spirit, and sums up the aims and character of the free citizen of Britain ? Let us visuaHse clearly not only the principles, against which we are fighting, but those for which the British Empire has always stood in the past.

I do not mean that we are all likely to agree with Spencer : far from it. It is not the overt doctrines, but the spirit underlying them, with which we are in sympathy. And since we are compelled, for

INTRODUCTION 5

the destruction of militarism, to assume temporarily a military organisation ourselves, it behoves us now particularly to keep our minds fixed upon the great ideal of liberty, which we hope to estabhsh more firmly than ever upon the conclusion of peace.

In attempting to place before my readers a judicial estimate of the true value of Spencer's philosophy, I may perhaps be pardoned if I describe my own relation towards it. It has been my singular fortune (or fate) to have read through the whole of Spencer's works twice at an interval of fifteen years, and each time in the midst of a great war. The first reading in fact was carried out on active service on the South African veldt, where not infrequently I had Uttle other baggage than a toothbrush and a volume of " The Principles of Psychology." There exists in the English language no more trenchant indictment of war and militarism than is contained in " The Study of Sociology." Yet it was my lot to read that work many miles from any inhabited town, in momentary expectation of an attack, and with revolver ready loaded in case of sudden need. To a certain type of mind, Spencer's doctrine of social freedom is irresistibly attractive : even more so than his easy naturalistic interpretation of phenomena, expressed as it is in a style of extreme lucidity. Spencer appeals so much to the sentiments that his writings tend to excite eithei hostility or dogmatic discipleship. The latter was my case, and it was only after years of watching English politics that the discipleship tended tc apathy : for the realisation of Spencer's theories appeared to be hopeless.

But the outbreak of a new and far more terrible war has already done much to break up the political agnosticism which had settled over a large section of the British people. We are once again in the presence of real issues. We are no longer drifting slowly along the placid stream of social reform, increasing month by month our stock of legislative enactments, and adding year by year to the powers of the Government over the individual. Circumstances have driven us headlong to a consummation which in many spheres touches the limit to which previous legislation was gradually progressing. In a few months the power of the State has increased to a degree which it could scarcely have attained in as many years of social reform. If the State formerly was by degrees asserting its authority over individuals, if it was always enlarging its claim to control their activities and to take their incomes as taxation ; it has now overtly proclaimed its complete authority over the persons and the incomes of every individual subject to its control. Doubtless it has done so by necessity ; but here we have a

INTRODUCTION 7

definite and avowed social policy, which is exceedingly likely to be continued long after the temporary necessity has lapsed. Is this a satisfactory social policy, or is it not ? That is the question which Spencer's philosophy endeavours to decide. On the one hand there is the argument that the State, advised by the most highly trained experts, is better able to decide what men ought ■ to do than the average semi-educated citizen can decide it for himself. There is then the second step — namely, after seeing what is right for men to do, there arises the question as to whether they should all be compelled to do it. In most of the legislation in vogue before the war these doctrines were tacitly implied, and they were scarcely at aU resisted. They are now overtly proclaimed ; and as soon as the necessity of the moment has passed we shall have before us the question of their real validity.

On the other hand there is simply the doctrine of freedom, and all the mental quahties which freedom implies. It is that doctrine which Spencer's philosophy endeavours to estabUsh ; it will be examined later in the light of his philosophy and of subsequent events. At present we are much more citizens than men, and much more subjects than citizens. Probably most people will decide the question forthwith by reference to their personal sentiments ; but it is a question which at all events is of first importance. We are at length in the presence of a real issue, to be solved, if possible, in the light of reason and inquiry, and without prejudice.

Once again, during the progress of a war, have I read Spencer's furious declamations against warlike and military activities. But now in many parts I find the arguments ill-founded ; in other parts the conclusions are certainly false ; and the style which formerly appeared so lucid now seems to have settled down to a deadly and invariable monotony. Yet still the thought arises, that, if Europe had followed Spencer, this war could never have occurred. Europe is now drenched in blood ; its wealth and prosperity are fast being drained away. The spirit of Treitschke has triumphed over the spirit of Spencer — the metaphysics of Germany over the common sense of England. And while reading Spencer again, I have reached the conviction that, notwithstanding his errors, his spirit was sound and true. It is useless now to sneer at liberty as a discredited doctrine. Europe may have abandoned it ; but see the result ! The social philosophy which can take eflEect like this is unquestionably and irremediably false. It does not follow, however, that the rival system is wholly true. We must certainly discard the whole dogmatism and formulary of Spencer's social philosophy : we cannot force the

INTRODUCTION 9

conclusions of sociology into a few narrow and rigid laws, as Spencer endeavoured to do. The data are so complicated that we can only see the issues " as through a glass darkly." We can discuss only the vague outlines of a few very general truths : we cannot see the sharp and detailed outlines that most politicians imagine, or that certain philosophers labour to describe.

Those who have had to deal with biography soon become aware that, whereas the Hves of men of action are full of interest and detail, the hves of men of thought are barren of incident : for they Hve in their writings and not in their doings. The chronicler of Spencer's doings has httle to teU. His Hfe was par excellence in his writings ; and a true biography of Spencer must consist chiefly of an account of his works. He was one of those authors of whom it may be most truly said that his works were much greater than himself ; and all the best of him will be found in his philosophy. His personaHty, outside his works, was meagre and petty. In this biography, therefore, I shall devote the greater part of the space to an account of his writings, in which he sacrificed the greater part of his personality.

Chapter II Life

Herbert Spencer* was born in Derby on April 27, 1820. He came from a family chiefly noticeable for their strong individuality and dissenting tendencies. His grandfather, Matthew Spencer, who was torn in 1762, settled in Derby early in life as assistant in St. Peter's parish school. About 1 791 he became head of a school himself, where he taught, according to one of his advertisements, " reading, writing, merchants' accounts, mensuration (with land surveying), algebra, etc." For board and education, his terms were thirteen guineas a year, with an entrance fee of one guinea. Matthew Spencer had six sons, of whom the eldest, William George Spencer, was the father of the philosopher. He was commonly called George Spencer, and was thus distinguished from a younger brother who had also received the name of William. George Spencer assisted his father in the management of the school and inherited from him at his death the property of the family, consisting of a few cottages and two fields. He married in 181 9 the

LIFE n

daughter of a plumber and glazier, called Harriet Holmes, who, notwithstanding a " small infusion of Huguenot blood and trace of Hussite blood," was a woman of very ordinary character, showing little of the rebellious tendencies of the Spencer family. She is described as patient and gentle — qualities altogether opposite to those of her husband ; and the divergence of interests and character did not conduce to a happy married life. George Spencer followed the career of teacher throughout his life ; he was brought up as a Wesleyan, but in later years turned more naturally towards the sect of the Quakers. He exhibited much of the unbending discipline of that doctrine : he would never address his correspondents as " Esquire " or " Reverend," but always as " Mr." ; nor would he ever take oflE his hat to anyone, of whatever rank. He was keenly interested in abstract questions of science and politics ; was honorary secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society, and by politics a Whig with tendencies towards what would later have been called Philosophic Radicalism. A man of aggressive independence and much ability and originality, he became somewhat irritable in later years, especially with his wife, whose questions and observations he used often wholly to ignore. He had nine children in all, but only Herbert, the eldest, passed the stage of infancy ; his four brothers and four sisters all died in early years. It is often said that great men tend to derive their characters from their mothers ; but the case of Herbert Spencer certainly runs-counter to the generalisation, for he had many and striking mental resemblances to his father, and none whatever discernible to his mother.

His education was of course very unusual, and was mainly characterised by lack of coercion. It was as widely diflterent as possible from that of John Stuart Mill, who began to learn Greek when he was three, and who was intensively cultivated to an almost incredible degree. Spencer, on the contrary, was left largely to himself : he was very backward as a boy in the ordinary subjects of children's lessons, but he had derived from observation of Nature, etc., a considerable amount of miscellaneous information. At the age of thirteen he knew " nothing worth mentioning of Latin or Greek." He had never been formally instructed in English : he had only the ordinary knowledge of arithmetic, and was altogether ignorant of English history and of biography. He knew, however, something of natural history, and had picked up the rudiments of physics, chemistry, and anatomy. Morally, he was extremely disobedient and contemptuous of authority ; but naturally intelligent and of a kindly disposition. At the age of thirteen Herbert was sent to

LIFE 13

Bfinton Charterhouse, near Bath, in order that his education might be carried on by his uncle, the Rev. Thomas Spencer, an advanced social reformer and temperance agitator. But he soon found the discipline more severe than he cared about, and ran away home to Derby again, walking fortyeight miles the first day, forty-seven the next, and twenty the third day, without sleep and with scarcely any food. He was, however, sent back to his uncle, with whom he subsequently got on satisfactorily. When he finally returned to Derby at the age of sixteen he had acquired a certain amount of mathematics, but was still very ignorant of languages and of history. He was, however, well set-up physically, and had undergone three years of a more rigorous discipline than that to which he was subjected in his father's house.

The following year, Spencer commenced his career as an assistant schoolmaster at Derby, but after three months' work with tolerable success a better opening presented itself. His tmcle William obtained for him a post under Charles Fox, who was permanent resident engineer of one division of the London and Birmingham Railway, and forthwith he embraced the profession of a civil engineer. His salary was to begin at j£8o a year ; but within a year his abilities had secured him a still better post as draughtsman on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway at ,£120 a year, with headquarters at Worcester. His companions in his profession were not of a very elevating kind ; but Spencer continued to be extremely steady, and his letters to his father at this period are mainly filled with various questions and suggestions on problems of mechanics. After a time he was further promoted to be engineering secretary to Captain Moorsom, who was engineerin-chief of the line. He began to think of other things besides mathematics and engineering, and in April, 1840, wrote to his father : " I was thinking the other day that I should like to make public some of my ideas upon the state of the world and religion, together with a few remarks on education." For the time, however, bis speculative tendencies were turned to invention. He devised a scale of equivalents, which was not published, and also a velocimeter for calculating velocities on railways, etc. More interesting was a meeting with a young lady of about his own age. For a few. weeks they saw much of one another, and appear to have indulged in very mild flirtation. The association did not last long ; for the lady was engaged to someone else. The incident was of so light and transient a character that in no ordinary biography would it be worth mentioning. It is mentioned here only because this appears to have been the only occasion in Spencer's life when he ever experienced the attraction of the other sex.

LIFE IS

The construction of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway was finished in 1841, and the engineers employed upon it were discharged. The note in Spencer's diary " Got the sack — ^very glad " indicates his satisfaction on the recovery of his freedom. The hope of making something out of his inventions of various kinds led him to refuse a permanent appointment in the locomotive service, before even he had been informed what the duties were. He returned to his home at Derby with considerable savings, which he intended to devote to the prosecution of his inventions. Other interests of this period include natural history, the collection of fossils, modeUing, and also phrenology.

The inventions, however, as usual came to nought ; and the year 1842 is interesting only on account of a series of letters written to an advanced dissenting organ called the Nonconformist. These letters, which bore the title " The Proper Sphere of Government," proposed to Hmit the functions of government entirely to the maintenance of justice. There was to be no provision for purposes of war, no restrictions on commerce, no poor laws, no national Church or national education, an4 no sanitary administration. The whole field of human activity was abandoned to private enterprise and voluntary co-operation. In the same year he embarked on active politics, and became honorary secretary of the Derby branch of the "Complete Suffrage Movement," which was allied to the Chartist agitation.

These occupations, however, did not solve the problem of earning a living, and in 1843 Spencer decided to adopt a literary career and came up to London to seek his fortune. He sent articles to various reviews, bu't they were not accepted. He spent over ,^10 in reprinting as a pamphlet his articles on " The Proper Sphere of Government," but the proceeds of the first year's sales amounted only to 14s. ^d. After three months no literary engagement had turned up ; attempts to find further employment at engineering were equally fruitless, and at the end of 1843 Spencer was obliged to return once more to Derby. After several months of reading and writing, he was at length offered the assistant editorship of a newspaper called the Pilot, which was about to be established in Birmingham as an organ of the Complete Suffrage Movement. The Pilot was successfully launched after many difficulties, but Spencer remained connected with it little more than a month. An urgent invitation reached him to assist in a survey of a proposed new branch of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway ; and after some hesitation the proposal was accepted. At this time Spencer was tolerably good-looking in appearance, but brusque and self-assertive in

LIFE 17

manner. His tendencies both in thought and politics were excessively radical ; and apparently his advanced views about religion caused some lack of sympathy between him and his employer, Joseph Sturge, the editor of the Pilot. He was interested in philosophy, and even contemplated the founding of a paper to be called the Philosopher ; but neither then nor afterwards did he ever undertake any serious course of reading on the subject. He tried to read Kant, but quickly threw him aside on the discovery that he disagreed with his first principles. As he often said in later life, idleness was a main characteristic of him, or, as would have stated the facts better, an ineptitude for discipline or for adhering to any course which failed to excite his interest.

The railway survey was succeeded by a visit to London, in order that the plans might be laid before the Committee on Standing Orders, with a view to passage through Parliament of a Bill authorising the construction of the new railway. The plans, however, were not accepted, — ^and with their rejection came a permanent end to Spencer's career as civil engineer. For two years he had no settled occupation, and spent nearly the whole of his time in devising various mechanical appliances ; he gave some thought also to the plan of a new book in further development of the theories embodied in " The Proper Sphere of Government."

He had, however, no idea at this time of making authorship a profession.

Spencer's inventions were not more successful than inventions usually are. He spent some time in working out a machine for aerial locomotion ; but the difficulties were too great to be overcome. A " binding-pin," for fixing together the loose sheets of musical pieces or weekly periodicals, was attended with somewhat better success. It was placed upon the market, and the first sales gave ground for the belief that they would bring in a revenue of 3^70 a year. But when the novelty had worn off the sales soon came to an end. Spencer's prospects looked very gloomy, when towards the end of 1848 he was offered and accepted the appointment of sub-editor to the Economist at a salary of 100 guineas a year, with free bedroom and attendance at the offices of that newspaper, at 340, Strand. On the opposite side of the street was the publishing house of John Chapman with whom Spencer soon became acquainted. Chapman was in the habit of giving soirees ; and at these entertainments Spencer met many of those who in later life became his intimate friends. Among these was George Henry Lewes* with whom he carried on animated discussions about the then ^unfashionable " development hypothesis " — the theory that the organic world is a product of development, and not of creation.

LIFE 19

Lewes introduced him to Carlyle ; but their temperaments were too divergent to permit of friendship. At Chapman's soiries, also, Spencer made the acquaintance of Miss Mary Ann or Marian Evans, then chiefly known as the translatress of Strauss, and afterwards famous as George Eliot. Soon afterwards he met Huxley, who introduced him to TyndaU ; and thus began two of the most intimate friendships of his life.

Spencer employed his spare time while at the Economist office in finishing his first book, which was published early in 1851 under the title of " Social Statics." Chapman was the pubhsher, but not unnaturally he declined to take any risks. Money was advanced for the purpose by one WoodfaU, who printed it and who arranged to give Spencer two years' credit on the security of j^8o which was still due to him, through the official Uquidator, from one of the railway companies by which he had been employed. The book, which was dominated by the same idea as the articles on "The Proper Sphere of Government," was well received by the pubHc ; the theories which it contained were in harmony with the Radicalism of the time, and brought Spencer some reputation. Nevertheless his prospects remained very poor, and he seriously considered the question of emigration. With habitual method, he drew up a list of tlie relative advantages of life in England and in New Zealand ; each item being valued by a number. England presented " greater domestic comforts " valued at lo, " excitement in literature " valued at 20, " excitement in science " at 6, and so on. On the other hand, New Zealand offered the prospect of marriage, valued at 100. In all, England summed up to no points, against 301 for New Zealand, No steps, however, were taken to carry the idea into execution.

It is curious that at this time the idea of marriage should have occupied his mind. Spencer's acquaintanceship with George Eliot had now ripened into a close friendship. As sub-editor of the Economist he received tickets giving free admission for two persons to the theatres and the Royal Italian Opera ; and during the early months of 1852 he constantly took George Eliot as his companion in these amusements, and current gossip suggested that they were about to be married. But this was not the case. Various passages in Spencer's Autobiography convey the notion that she was in love with him, but that he was not in love with her. " There were reports that I was in love with her, and that we were about to be married. But neither of these reports was true."^ In a letter to a friend written at this period he describes George Eliot as " the most

^ Autobiography, i., 399,

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admirable woman, mentally, I ever met " ; and, as already mentioned, he then held marriage to be one of the most desirable consummations of life. The only clue to his attitude at this time is that furnished by a passage in the " Reflections " at the end of the .Autobiography, where he says " Physical beauty is a sine qua non with me ; as was once unhappily proved where the intellectual traits and the emotional traits were of the highest." ^ I think there is no question whatever that the allusion here is to George Eliot ; and the conclusion to be drawn is that Spencer believed that George Eliot would have been willing to marry him. But he himself had at this age, I do not doubt, lost any capacity he may have had for falling in love.

Spencer's book on " Social Statics " constituted an introduction to various reviews and periodicals. G. H. Lewes was then literary editor of a radical paper called the Leader ; and for this journal Spencer wrote a series of anonymous articles on a great variety of subjects under the title " The Haythorne Papers." The first was entitled " Use and Beauty " ; the second dealt with " The Development Hypothesis " ; others with Architectural Types, Gracefulness, etc. The article on " The Development Hypothesis," is interesting on account of its advocacy of an evolution theory,