The microscopy of vegetable foods, with special reference to the detection of adulteration and the diagnosis of mixtures

Front matter

New $urk

Hate (({allege of Agriculture

Hibrarg

Preface To The Second Edition

In the preface to the first edition attention was directed to the development of food microscopy on the continent, to its practical importance, and to the lack of a comprehensive work on the subject in the English language. Since that time microscopic methods have come into more general use throughout the United States in the examination of human and cattle foods, and as a consequence certain fraudulent practices have been suppressed or much restricted. Both the author and his helpmate have been identified with this movement as State and Federal officials and as independent investigators and have thus collected data which are incorporated in the present edition.

Among the features of the edition are additions to the sections on wheat and flour, a complete revision of such parts of the chapter on oil seeds as treat on mustards, rapes, cruciferous weed seeds, and linseed, a description of the histology of alfalfa with distinctions from red and alsike clover, a revision of the sections on pomes and drupes with practical hints on the examination of almond pastes, jams, preserves and other fruit products, and rewritten descriptions of the cucurbitaceous fruits used as foods and adulterants.

Of the 68 cuts which have been added over half are here published for the first time and the remainder, with one exception, have appeared only in journal articles. Twenty-two cuts have been dropped.

The idea that a scientific grounding is essential for practical work has never been out of mind. Experience has shown that the systematic study of each product from the morphological and physiological standpoint develops not only the keenest observation but also the faculty of naming a product from a single fragment just as the paleontologist forms his picture of an entire animal from a single bone.

The application of the microscopy of foods is by no means limited to the detection of adulteration and the identification of unknown materials. The miller, the brewer, the oil presser, the feed manufacturer, the canner, and the coffee and spice grinder should be conversant with the structure iv PREFACE.

as well as the chemical composition of their raw materials, and the student in the school of technology should follow both lines of study in order that he may be prepared to attack the complicated problems of the industries.

As was stated in the preface to the first edition, the work is closely affiliated with the second edition of Moeller's " Mikroskopie der Nahrungsund Genussmittel," which was published in 1905 with the collaboration of the author. The descriptions of most of the leaves, flowers, barks, roots, and edible fungi, upward of 125 pages, are translations of Professor Moeller's text, and no less than 332 cuts are also his. The author again acknowledges with the deepest gratitude this generous cooperation of his honored teacher and friend.

Valuable cuts have been borrowed from the works of Berg, Collin and Perrot, Frank, Gilg, Hager, Halstrom, T. F. Hanausek, Hartig, Hassall, Kny, Leach, Luerssen, Malfatti, A. Meyer, Mez, R. Miiller, Nees, Nobbe, Planchon and Collin, Sachs, Schimper, Schumann, Tschirch, Tschirch and Oesterle, Tulasne, Vogl, and Warburg. Grateful acknowledgment is due these authors also their publishers as follows: Julius Springer, Berlin (publisher of Moeller's Mikroskopie); The Clarendon Press, Oxford; Wm. Engelmann, Leipsig; Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart; Gustav Fischer, Jena; Carl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna; H. Haessell, Leipsig; Alfred Holder, Vienna; A. Joanin & Cie., Paris; Longmans, Green, & Co., London; Paul Parey, Berlin; Chr. Herm. Tauchnitz, Leipsig; Urban & Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna; J. J. Weber, Leipsig; Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, Berlin. Permission to reproduce Fig. 16 was kindly granted by Mr. E. Goodwin Clayton, F.I.C., F.C.S., consulting chemist, 32 Holborn Viaduct, London, England. Numerous cuts, made from the author's drawings for publications of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, are reproduced with the kind permission of that institution. The larger part of the collaborators' and the author's drawings were reproduced on wood by F. X. Matolony of Vienna.

In the preparation of the text the works of the leading authors have been consulted, and credit has frequently been given for important discoveries, although so far as possible the descriptions have been based on original observations.

Wilton, Conn.,

November 1, 1913.

Part I. Preliminary: Equipment, Methods, And General

PRINCIPLES.

PAGB

INTRODUCTION I

APPARATUS 5

REAGENTS 8

COLLECTIONS ii

Mechanical Preparation 12

Treatment with Reagents 15

Tissues ■ 20

Ceia-contents 23

The Leaf 28

The Flower 3°

The Fruit 33

Pericarp 33

Seed 35 .

The Stem 38

Bark 4°

Wood 41

The Root. 44

Part II. Grain: Its Products And Impurities

Impurities and Adulterants 47 v

VI CONTENTS.

PAGE

Bread 55

Cattle Foods 56

CEREALS (Graminece) 60

Microscopic Characters 61

Analytical Keys 62

Wheat (Triticum) 65

Spelt (Triticum sativum var. Spelta) 73

Emmer (Triticum sativum var. dicoccum) 75

One-grained Wheat (Triticum monococcum) 76

Rye (Secale cereale) 77

Barley (Hordeum sativum) 80

Maize (Zea Mays) •. 86

Broom Corn (Andropogon Sorghum var. lechnicus) 97

Sugar Sorghum (Andropogon Sorghum var. saccharatus) 103

Kaffir Corn (Andropogon Sorghum) 104

Durrha (Andropogon Sorghum var. durra) 104

Rice (Oryza saliva) 105

Oats (Avena sativa) m

Common Millet (Panicum miliaceum) 116

German Millet (Setaria Italica = S. panis) 118

Green Foxtail (Setaria viridis = Chcetochloa viridis) 118

Yellow Foxtail (Setaria glauca = Chcetochloa glauca) 124

Darnel (Lolium lemulenlum) 125

Chess (Bromus secalinus) 1 30

Buckwheats (Polygonaceoe) 132

Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) 132

Tartary Buckwheat (Fagopyrum Tartaricum) 138

Black Bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus) 138

Other Polygonaceous Seeds , 144

Screenings 145

European 145

American 146

Analyses 147

CaryophyllacEous Seeds (Caryophyllacece) 148

Cockle (Agro stemma Githago) 14S

Cow Herb (Vaccaria parvifiora —Saponaria Vaccaria) 151

Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) jj,

Spurrey (Spergula arvensis) u2

Ranunculaceous Seeds (Ranunculaceoi) " 152

Buttercup Fruit (Ranunculus arvensis) 153

Adonis Fruit (Adonis aestivalis, A. Flammed) ,c.

Larkspur Seed (Delphinium Consolida) i55

Louse Seed (Delphinium Staphysagria) ter

Black Caraway (Nigella arvensis) I55

Miscellaneous Weed Seeds IS6

Cow Wheat (Melampyrum arvense) 1 c6

Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) 1 57

CONTENTS. VU

PAGE

Wild Carrot {Daufus Caroia) 158

Hollow Seed (Bijora radians) 159

Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus) 160

Cleavers {Galium) 161

Plantain {Plantago major, P. lanceolata) 163

FUNGUS IMPURITIES 164

Ergot {Claviceps purpurea) .■ 164

Smuts {Ustilago, Tilletia, etc.) 166

Part III. Oil Seeds And Oil Cakes

Oil-seed Products 169

Cruciferous SEEds (Cfuci)erce) 173

Microscopic Characters 173

White Mustard (Brassica alba) 177

Black Mustard {Brassica nigra) 180

Brown Mustard {Brassica Besseriana) 183

Charlock {Brassica arvensis) 184

Common Rape {Brassica Napus) 186

German Rape {Brassica Rapa) 187

Indian Colza {Brassica campestris var. Sarson) 188

Brown Indian Rape {Brassica Napus var. dichotoma) 18S

Indian Mustard {Brassica juncea) 180

Palai Rape {Brassica rugosa) 1 89

Dissected Mustard {Brassica dissecta) 1 89

Eruca {Eruca saliva) 190

False Flax {Camelina saliva) 190

Hedge Mustard {Sisymbrium officinale, S. Sophia, etc.) 192

Shepherd's Purse {Capsella Bursa-Pastoris) 192

Wild Peppergrass {Lepidium Virginicum, L. campeslre, L. sativum) 193

Field Pennycress {Thlaspi arvense) igj

Treacle Mustard {Erysimum orientate) 194

Wild Radish {Raphanus Raphanistrum) 194

Winter Cress {Barbarea vulgaris) 194

Composite Oil Fruits {Composites) 195

Sunflower {Helianthus annuus) 195

Madia Seed {Madia saliva) 198

Niger Seed {Guizotia A byssinica = G. oleijera) 200

Miscellaneous Oil Seeds 202

Linseed {Linum usitatissimum) 2G2

Cottonseed {Gossypium herbaceum) 207

Kapok Seed {Ceibo pentandra —Eriodendron anfraciuosum) 213 viii CONTENTS.

PAGB

Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa) ? 214

Sesame Seed (Sesamum Indicum) 219

Castor Bean (Ricinus communis) 222

Candlenut (Aleurites triloba =A. Moluccana) 224

Poppy Seed (Papaver somniferum) 225

Olive (Oka Europea) 228

Part IV. Legumes

LEGUMES (Leguminosm) 233

Microscopic Characters 233

Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 238

Spanish Bean (Phaseolus multiflorus) 240

Adzuki Bean (Phaseolus Mungo, var. glaber) , . . . . 241

Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus) 241

Pea (Pisum arvense, P. sativum) 242

Lentil (Lens esculenta =Ervum Lens) 245

China Bean (Vigna Catjang = V. Sinensis = Dolichos Sinensis) 247

Soy Bean (Glycine hispida =Soja hispida) 248

Egyptian Bean (Dolichos Lablab = Lablab vulgaris) 249

Horse Bean (Faba vulgaris = Vicia Faba) 250

Spring Vetch (Vicia saliva) 251

Winter Vetch (Vicia villosa) 252

Hairy Vetch (Vicia hirsuta) : 252

Yellow Lupine (Lupinus luteus) 253

White Lupine (Lupinus albus) 255

Blue Lupine (Lupinus anguslijolius) 255

Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum) 256

Soudan Coffee (Parkia Africana, P. Roxburgii) 257

Jack Bean (Canavalia ensiformis, C. oblusijolia) 258

Fenugreek (Trigonella Faenum-Grcecum) 259

Coffee Cassia (Cassia occidentalis) 262

Astragalus (Astragalus bceticus) 264

Alfalfa (Medica sativa) 265

Peanut (Arachis hypogtza) 269

Tonka Bean (Coumarouna odorata =Dipteryx odorata, etc.) 275

Carob Bean (Ceratonia Siliqua) m 2-7

CONTENTS. ix

Part V. Nuts

PAGE

NUTS 281

Palm Fruits {Palmes) 281

Cocoanut {Cocos nucifera) 281

Palm-nut {Eltzis Guineensis) 290

Wax-palm {Corypha cerijera = Copernica cerifera) 292

Ivory-nut {Phytelephas macrocarpa, etc.) 293

Polynesian Ivory-nut {Coelococcus) 295

Walnuts (JuglandaceiB) 295

European Walnut (Juglans regia) 295

Black Walnut {Juglans nigra) 298

Butternut {Juglans cinerea) 298

Pecan Nut {Carya olivcejormis) 298

Hickory-nut {Carya alba) .' 299

Cup Nuts {Cupulijercs) 299

Chestnut {Casianea sativa, etc.) 299

Acorn {Quercus) ; 302

Beech-nut {Fagus sylvatica, F. ferruginea) 307

Hazelnut {Corylus) 309

Miscellaneous Nuts 312

Brazil-nut {Bertholletia nobilis) 312

Pistachio-nut {Pistacia vera) 315

Pine-nut {Pinus Pinea, P. Cembra) 316

Part VI. Fruit And Fruit Products

FRUIT 3i7

Fruit Products 317

Adulterants 317

Rosaceous Fruits {Rosacea) 32 1

Apple {Pyrus Malus) 321

Pear {Pyrus communis) 326

Quince {Cydonia vulgaris = Pyrus Cydonia) 330

Almond {Prunus amygdalus) 332

Peach {Prunus Persica) 337

Apricot {Prunus Armeniaca) 339

Plum {Prunus domestica, P. triflora) 340

Cherry {Prunus avium, P. cerasus) 341

Rose Fruit, {Rosa canina) 342

Strawberry {Fragaria) 343

CONTENTS

PAGB

Red Raspberry (Rubus Idceus, etc.) 349

Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) • 354

Blackberry (Rubus frulicosus, etc.) 354

SaxiFragaceous Fruits (Saxifragacea) 357

Red Currant (Ribes rubrum) 357

Black Currant (Ribes nigrum) 362

Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia, etc.) 363

Ericaceous Fruits (Ericaceae) 3°°

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon, etc.) 3"°

Blueberry (Vaccinium Myrlillus, etc.) 37°

Huckleberry (Gaylussacia resinosa) 373

Citrus Fruits (Rutacece) 376

Orange (Citrus Auraniium) 37°

Lemon (Citrus medica, var. Limon) 3^!

Citron (Citrus medica, var. genuina) 3^1

Miscellaneous Fruits 382

Grape (Vilis vinijera) 3^2

Fig (Ficus Carica) 3^6

Date (Phoenix dactylijera) 39°

Banana (Musa sapientum) 393

Pineapple (Ananassa saliva) 395

Part VII. Vegetables

Cucurbit Fruits (Cucurbitacece) 397

Pumpkin (Cucui bita Pepo) 398

Squash (Cucurbita maxima) 402

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) 403

Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo) 405

Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) 406

Solanaceous Fruits (Solanacea) 410

Tomato (Solatium Lycopersicum=Lycopersiciim esculentum) 410

Tubers and Roots 414

Potatp (Solanum tuberosum) 414

Japanese Potato (Stachys Sieboldii) 415

Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuber osus) 416

Beet (Beta vulgaris) 4^

Carrot (Daucus Carota) 4!8

Turnip (Brassica Rapa) 419

Fungi 419

Truffles (Tuber) 420

Morels (Morchella, Gymitra, Hehella) 422

Mushrooms (Psalliota, Boletus) 423

CONTENTS. xi

Part VIII. Alkaloidal Products And Their Substitutes

PAGE

Coffee (Coffea Arabica) 427

Liberian Coffee {Coffea Liberica) 438

Chicory (Cichorium Iniybus) 438

Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum) 440

Cocoa Bean (Theobroma Cacao) 442

Guarana (Paullinia sorbilis) ..." 45 1

Kola Nut (Cola acuminata) 452

Tea (Camellia Thea) , . . . . 452

Gromwell Leaves (Lithospermum officinale) 458

Willow Herb Leaves (Epilobium angustijolium = Chamaenerium angusti-

folium) 459

Willow Leaves (Salix) 461

Ash Leaves (Fraxinus sp.) ,. . 462

Rowan Leaves (Sorbus Aucuparia =Pyrus Aucuparia) 463

Mulberry Leaves (Morus alba, M. nigra) : 464

Coffee Leaves (Coffea Arabica) 466

Camellia Leaves (Camellia Japonica) 467

Cherry Leaves (Prunus avium) 468

Sloe Leaves (Prunus spinosa) 469

Rose Leaves (Rosa canina, etc.) 470

Strawberry Leaves (Fragaria vesca) ^-ji

Meadowsweet Leaves (Spirtza Ulmaria) 473

Wistaria Leaves (Wistaria Sinensis =Kraunhia floribunda) 475

Hydrangea Leaves (Hydrangea Hortensia) 476

Maple Leaves (Acer Negundo =Negundo fraxinifohum) 477

Oak Leaves (Quercus pedunculata, Q. sessiliflora) 477

Akebia Leaves (Akebia quinata) 478

Blueberry Leaves (Vaccinium Myrtillus) 480

Caucasian Tea (Vaccinium Arctostaphylos) 481

Other Tea Substitutes 483

Mate (Ilex Paraguariensis) 483

Coca (Erythroxylon Coca) 485

Tobacco (Nicoiiana Tabacum, N. rustica) 486 xii CONTENTS.

Part IX. Spices And Condiments

PAGB

Impurities 493

Adulterants 494

Condimental Cattle and Poultry Foods 499

PipEraceous Fruits (Pipcracece) 502

Pepper (Piper nigrum) 502

Long Pepper (Piper cfpZcinarum, P. longum) . . . .- 511

Cubebs (/ iper Cubeba) 513

SolanacEods Fruits (Solanacece) 515

Paprika (Capsicum) 515

Cayenne Pepper (Capsicum fastigiatum, etc.) 523

Myrtaceous Fruits (Myrtacece) 526

Allspice (Pimenta officinalis, etc.) 526

Nutmegs and Mace (Myristicacece) , 531

True Kutmeg and Mace (Myristica jragrans) 531

Macassar Nutmeg and Mace (Myristica argentea) , 540

Bombay Mace (Myristica Malabarica) 540

Cardamoms (Zingiberacece) 542

Malabar Cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum, Amomum Cardamomum,

Ceylon Cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum) 547

Umbelliferous Fruits (Umbelliferce) 549

Comparative Histology of Umbelliferous Fruits 550

Fennel (Fceniculum capillaceum) cc2

Caraway (Carum Carvi) 555

Anise (Pimpinella Anisum) 1-58

Cumin (Cuminum Cyminum) 560

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) cg2

Dill (Anetkum graveolens) ,-64.

Celery Seed (Apium graveolens) ,-g ^

Miscellaneous Fruits and Seeds 566

Star-anise (Illicium verum) -gg

Shikimi (Illicium religiosum) ,-,

Vanilla (Vanilla planijolia) ._,

Vanillon (Vanilla pompona) _-o

Bayberry (Laurus nobilis) __0

Juniper Berry (Juniperus communis) -o2

Cassia (Cinnamomum) 0,

Cassia Buds (Cinnamomum Cassia)

Ceylon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Ccylonicum)

CONTENTS xm

PAGE

Clove Bark (Dicypellium caryophyllatum) 594

£anella Bark (Canella alba) 597

Rhizomes 599

Ginger (Zingiber officinale, etc.) 599

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) 602

Zedoary (Curcuma Zedoaria) 605

Galangal (Alpinia officinarum, A. calcarata) 606

Sweet Flag (Acorus Calamus) 608

Leaves 610

Sage (Salvia officinalis) 610

Marjoram (Origanum Majorana) 612

Savory (Satureja hortensis) 613

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 615

Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) 615

Bay-leaf (Laurus nobilis) 616

Tarragon (Artemisia Dracunculus) 617

Wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris) 619

Sorrel (Rumex scutatus) 621

Flowers 622

Saffron (Crocus sativus) 623

Marigold Flowers (Calendula officinalis) 627

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) 629

Cape Saffron (Lyperia crocea) 631

South African Saffron (Tritonia aurea = Crocosma aurea = Babiana aurea). 632

Maize Silk (Zea Mays) j. 632

Cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata = J 'ambosa Caryophyllus = Caryophyllus

aromaticus) 632

Clove Stems 636

Clove Fruit 637

Capers (Capparis spinosa) 639.

Part X. Commercial Starches

Maize Starch (Zea Mays) 651

Rice Starch (Oryza sativa) 652

Wheat Starch (Triticum sativum) 653

Buckwheat Starch (Fagopyrum esculentum) 654

Leguminous Starches (Leguminosce) 65s

Chestnut Starch (Castanea vesca) 656

Horse-chestnut Starch (JEsculus Hippocastanum) 657

Bean-tree Starch (Castanospermuni Auslrale) 658

Banana Starch (Musa) 658 xiv CONTENTS.

PAGB

Bread-fruit Starch (Artocarpus incisa) 659

Potato Starch {Solarium tuberosum) 659

Maranta Starch or West India Arrowroot {Maranta arundinacea) 660

Curcuma Starch or East India Arrowroot {Curcuma) 662

Canna Starch or Queensland Arrowroot {Canna) 662

Yam Starch or Guiana Arrowroot (Dioscorea) 663

Cassava Starch {Manihot utilissima, M. aipi) 664

Sweet-potato Starch or Brazilian Arrowroot {Batatas cdulis = 1 pomcea

Batatas) 665

Arum Starch or Portland Arrowroot {Arum) 666

Tacca Starch or Tahiti Arrowroot {Tacca pinnatifida) 667

Sago {Meiroxylon, Sagus, etc.) 667

Miscellaneous Starches 669

INDEX 685

THE MICROSCOPY OF VEGETABLE FOODS.