Principles of cooking; a textbook in domestic science

Front matter

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PRINCIPLES QFGQQKIMG

EMMA CONLEY

Preface

" Principles of Cooking " is intended as a textbook in cooking and elementary food study for secondary and vocational scHools. It is not merely a cook book. So many good cook books are on the market that there would be no justification for adding another to the list. The cook book, however, merely presents hundreds of recipes showing innumerable ways in which foods may be prepared, without attempting to present the principles underlying all cooking.

The principles of cooking are few in number and are easily mastered, if properly presented. Foods may be grouped in less than a dozen classes, and when the principles which apply to each class are learned and practiced, each pupil will know how to prepare a variety of dishes from each food or class of foods.

After the principles of cooking are fully understood and applied in practical lessons, there is no educational or practical value in the preparation of isolated recipes or in a sequence of lessons on one class of foods. The object of domestic science work in schools is that a girl may learn how to plan, cook, and serve meals at home, calculate the cost, and purchase foods in the best market at the lowest price. This includes knowing the nutritive value of each food and its place in the diet.

Unless considerable practice is given in schools in planning and preparing meals, a pupil may be able to cook one or two single foods, but she cannot prepare all the

4 PREFACE

dishes needed for a meal and have them ready to serve at a stated time.

It is with this aim in mind, that all cooking in schools should lead to the preparation of attractive, appetizing, nutritious, well-balanced mqals, that " Principles of Cooking " and its companion book, " Nutrition and Diet," are written. They are intended for pupils who have had cooking in the grades or for those who are mature enough to master a few important and essential facts, presented in Chapters II and III, before proceeding to the practical work of cooking. Any high school girl can learn these facts as easily as she can master problems in algebra or geometry, learn a history lesson, or calculate balanced rations for farm animals in a class in agriculture.

High school work in cooking or domestic science must include some acquisition of knowledge concerning foods, as well as practical work, to make it equivalent in value to other high school subjects, and to deserve a credit towards college entrance requirements.

If one year is devoted to the work presented in " Principles of Cooking," and " Nutrition and Diet," the credit given in high school for the work should be equivalent to the credit given for a year's work in any other high school subject.

Practically all of the recipes in this book are the result of class experiments made by varying standard recipes or by trying new combinations of foods. A few recipes were contributed by friends. All recipes have been tried, many •times, by classes of students and proved reliable.

Every school library should contain at least one reliable cook book, as the " Boston Cooking School Cook Book " or " Practical Cooking and Serving," and advanced pupils should compare recipes grouped together. They should

PREFACE S

note the points of variation from the standard recipe of the group and be able to make new and attractive food combinations for themselves. All cooking is' based on a few standard recipes, changed or altered to produce variety. If an intelligent study is made of the principles of cooking and their application, preparing foods will no longer be a work of uncertainty, but an interesting, scientific, and comparatively easy process, and the preparing of nutritious, wholesome, and balanced meals will be a

pleasure.

EMMA CONLEY.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. General Directions for Work. Equipment . . 7

II. Classes of Foods. Reasons for Cooking . 22

Chapter I General Directions For Work In A School Kitchen

In a school kitchen each girl has her own place at the kitchen table and is responsible for the washing of her own dishes, care and proper placing of all her utensils, the condition of her table, dish towels, etc.

The general household duties are assigned to the various pupils in turn, so that the kitchen will be left in perfect order at the close of the lesson and the pupils will have practice in this important part of the work. Practice in this work trains each pupil to do all kitchen duties, develops her interest and responsibiUty in the proper care of the kitchen, makes her familiar with the contents of the cupboards, and the proper places to keep suppUes, china, linen, and various utensils. It also trains her in the very important duties of caring for the stove, oven, sink, and floor, and unifies the work so that it is like actual housekeeping.

The following is an easy arrangement of work in the school kitchen : —

Housekeeper i . Care of suppHes used in the daily lesson.

Housekeeper 2. Building of fire, care of stove and teakettle, and attending to the oven during baking.

Housekeeper 3. Care of sink.

Housekeeper 4. Sweeping of kitchen at the close of the lesson.

Suggestions for Pupils. — i. Be sure that hands and nails are clean before coming to class.

2. Wash the hands before the beginning of the lesson and keep them clean.

3. Always keep the hair neatly combed.

4. Do not wear rings while cooking.

5. Always wear an apron, and a holder suspended from the apron by a tape.

6. Never use an apron in place of a holder.

7. Never taste food with a mixing spoon.

8. Do not leave the spoon in the food while it is cooking.

9. Keep the tables clean and in order.

10. Keep the drawers and cupboards closed.

11. Collect all utensils and supplies needed for work, before beginning to prepare the food.

12. Do not use unnecessary utensils.

13. Have all materials measured and ready for use before beginning to put them together.

14. Measure accurately, for on that depends the success of your cooking.

15. Do not waste material.

16. Work quietly, quickly, carefully, and neatly.

17. Practice at home the things learned at school.

18. Try each recipe at home.

19. Calculate the cost of each recipe.

A list of the foods most frequently used in the home, of seasonable vegetables and fruits, and the prices of each, should be posted weekly in a conspicuous place in the kitchen so that pupils will learn to note cost, calculate the cost of various foods, and know when is the best time to purchase and serve certain vegetables and fruits.

Each recipe given in this book will serve six people. For school work one fourth of each recipe is taken, unless otherwise stated.

ABBREVIATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS USED IN COOKING

tsp. — teaspoon oz. — ounce

tbsp. — tablespoon lb. — pound

c. — cup spk. — speck

pt. — • pint bk. pd. — baking powder

qt. — quart min. — minute

3 tsp. = I tbsp. 4 tbsp. flour = i oz. (about)

i6 tbsp. = I c. 2 c. sugar = i lb.

2 c. = 1 pt. 2 c. butter = i lb.

2 pt. = [ qt. 3^-4 c. flour = i lb.

2 tbsp. butter = i oz. 9 large eggs = i lb.

2 tbsp. sugar = i oz. 2 c. lard = i lb.

All measures are leveled.

In leveling dry materials, level with a knife. Divide with a knife lengthwise for one half a spoon. Divide with a knife crosswise for one fourth spoon. Divide with a knife crosswise for one eighth.

TEMPERATURES USED IN COOKING

Freezing point of water Fahrenheit 32° Centigrade 0°

Blood temperature Fahrenheit 98.6° Centigrade 37°

Simmering point Fahrenheit 185° Centigrade 85°

BoUing point Fahrenheit 212° Centigrade 100°

To change a reading of temperature from Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multiply Centigrade temperature by 1.8, add 32", which will give the equivalent temperature in Fahrenheit.

lO GENERAL DIRECTIONS

The coagulation temperature of proteins is from 158°- 167° F.

The gelatinizing temperature of starch is from 149°- 185° F.

The high temperatures, when used, are to develop flavor.

Ferments are destroyed at temperatures above 160° F.

Rules for Dishwashing. — To wash dishes plenty of hot water is needed, also a dishpan, rinsing pan, dishcloth, wire cleaner for pots and pans, a soap shaker, brush for silver and glass, scouring board, cork and flannel, sapolio, soap, and clean, dry dish towels.

After the dining room table is cleared, collect knives, forks, and spoons.

Scrape all crumbs, scraps, and dough into a waste jar.

Wipe greasy dishes out with soft paper so that they wiU not make the dishwater greasy.

Dishes with egg adhering should be soaked in cold water, as the hot water cooks the egg and makes it difficult to remove.

Rinse ^vith cold water glasses and bottles that have held milk.

Empty the tea and coffee pots.

Put all pans and kettles to soak in hot water so that they will clean easily.

Pile all dishes of a kind neatly together.

Have the dishpan half full of hot, soapy water, the rinsing pan half full of clear hot water.

For ease and rapidity of work, place the soiled dishes on the extreme right of the work table, the dishpan to the left of the soiled dishes, the rinsing pan to the left of the dishpan, and then place the clean dishes to the left of the rinsing pan.

Wash the glasses first and dry at once, then wash silver, cups, saucers, plates, etc., taking the cleanest first, rinsing and drjdng thoroughly.

Scour the knives when necessary.

Wash the tea and coffee pots with clean, hot water and dry them.

Lastly, wash the tins and cooking utensils, scouring, if necessary, with powdered sapolio applied with a cork or flannel.

Do not put boiling water on glasses or china.

Do not put wooden handles or the cogs of Dover egg beaters into the water.

Never leave the soap in the sink or dishpan.

When all the dishes are washed and wiped, pile the different Idnds together and put into place.

Empty the dishpan, wash the dish towels in warm suds, rinse, and hang to dry.

Wash the table, soap dish, and sink in warm suds.

Wash both dishpan and rinsing pan with hot suds, rinse with clear water, and dry thoroughly with a dish towel.

Wash the dishcloth, rinse, and hang to dry.

The daily care of the sink consists in keeping it free from grease' and scraps, scrubbing it thoroughly, and keeping it dry when not in use. In addition to this, at least once a week, pour a hot, strong solution of sal soda down the waste pipe to wash off all the grease that may have cooled and settled in the pipe. Follow this with plenty of hot water. If this is done, waste pipes will not become clogged with grease. All sinks should have a strainer screwed down over the waste pipe, and no tea leaves, coffee grounds, burnt matches, or potato parings should ever be put in the sink. A garbage pail should be kept for that purpose. This pail should be washed daily with a solution of sal soda and dried and placed in the sunshine when possible.

Fire and Firemaking. — The success of cooking depends upon the application of the right amount of heat to the right combination of foods, so a study of fire making and fire regulation is necessary to produce the best results. Cooking at the wrong temperature injures the food and often unfits it for use. It is said that the baking of bread or cake is two thirds of the making. At any rate, both are spoiled by too slow or too fast an oven. Much fuel is wasted because the application of the right amoimt of heat is not understood or is neglected.

To have a good fire we must have a good stove, a good fuel, and some means of raising it to its kindhng point, and must be able to secure a good supply of air to make the fire burn. By the kindhng point is meant the temperature at which a thing takes fire. Some substances, like phosphorus, matches, paper, gas, and gasoline, have a low kindhng point and take fire rapidly. Some, like hard coal, have a very high kindling point and some other fuel must be used as kindhng before a coal fire can be started. The smaller the pieces of fuel, and the more loosely packed, so that air can surround them, the more easily wiU the fire kindle.

Soft wood makes excellent kindling, and in some localities, where wood is plentiful, both hard and soft wood are used as fuel. Gas is almost universally used for cooking in cities, at least during the summer months. It is cheaper, if properly handled, than wood or coal, cleaner, and gives off less heat. Some form of oil is used in rural communities during the summer for the same reason that gas is used in the cities, and denatured alcohol is used in some local-

GENERAI. DIRECTIONS 13

ities. Both hard and soft coal are used during the winter for heating and cooking purposes. Coal makes an excellent fire for cooking, as it is easily regulated, suppUes uniform heat, and requires very little attention when once started. Electricity is an important source of heat.

Parts of a Stove or Range. — Most ranges or stoves are so made that they will burn either wood or coal, the only change necessary being the adjustment of the grate.

The parts of a range are : —

1. A fire box, lined, so as to control the heat and conduct it where it is needed.

2. A grate at the bottom of the fire box, usually reversible, so as to burn either wood or coal, and so made as to allow the ashes to pass through.

3. An ash pan below the fire box ; should be emptied daily.

4. Dampers, checks, and drafts, for the purpose of admitting air and controlKng and regulating its supply. The draft in the fire box is for the purpose of admitting air when starting the fire, or to make the fire burn faster. When closed it checks the fire. The damper in the chimney should be partially closed after the fire is started to prevent loss of heat. It should never be closed so tight that the smoke cannot escape. The oven damper partially closes the opening into the chimney and forces the heated air to pass around the oven, thus heating the oven.

5. An oven, used for baking purposes. It must be kept free from soot, above and below, so that the air can circulate freely. If this is not done, the food will burn on the top or bottom or will not bake evenly.

6. Stovepipe, to allow air and smoke to pass through.

7. Water front — connected with water tank in kitchen to heat water. (Not always used.)

8. Warming oven, to keep dishes warm.

Pupils should become familiar with all parts of the stove and get enough practice in baking so as to understand the regulation of the oven and know what temperatures are best for the various foods.

How to Build a Fire. — Remove the covers from the top of the stove and brush the soot and ashes into the fire box. Clean everything out of the fire box by shaking the grate so the ashes will fall into the ash pan. Place crumpled newspaper, shavings, or small pieces of soft wood in the bottom of the fire box ; then put in some soft wood, then hard wood, arranged loosely so that the air can pass through. Place the wood so it reaches the corners of the fire box and is not massed in the middle. Open the dampers in the fire box, chimney, and oven, and then light the fire. Apply the match to the substance that will kindle quickest. The fire should be lighted at the bottom so that the flame will ascend. As the fire burns freely, put on more fuel, but the fire box should never be more than three fourths full. When the fire is well started close the front draft, partially close the chimney draft, and if the oven is to be used close the oven draft.

Ashes should be emptied every day. -If left in the stove until they fill the ash pan and touch the grate at the bottom of the fire box, they destroy the grate.

The oven should be kept clean. If anything has boiled over and burned on the bottom of the oven, it should be scraped off with an old knife.

The best time to black the stove is while the fire is starting. Use very little blacking, but brush it thoroughly over all parts of the stove. A steel range requires no blacking, simply washing.

Suggestions for Cooking with Gas. — i. See that the stove is kept clean.

2. Keep the burners free from grease, dust, and dirt.

3. To Hght a burner, open the valve leading to the burner to be used, allow the gas to flow a second, and then apply the match.

4. To hght the oven, apply the lighted match to the oven pilot and then turn on the gas. If the gas is turned on too long before it is lighted, there is danger of an explosion. For the same reason the oven door should be opened before the pilot is hghted.

5. Never leave a burner lighted because you are going to use it soon ; when the gas is not in use, turn it out, and hght it again when needed. Matches are cheaper than gas.

6. Never light a burner until you are ready to use it. As soon as the food begins to boil, turn the gas as low as possible. Food is cooking just as fast when it is bubbling slightly as when it is boiling over the top of the kettle, and there is less danger that it will burn. Food tastes better cooked in this way. After food has started to cook, it is almost impossible to use too little heat; foods are spoiled by the use of too great heat and gas is wasted. When you waste gas, you are burning money that could be used to purchase food or clothing.

7. When baking bread, put the bread in the cold oven, light the gas and let the oven heat slowly for the first ten minutes, increase the heat for the next fifteen minutes, and then finish baking at a moderate temperature.

8. Learn to read your gas meter, for if properly handled and looked after, gas is more satisfactory to cook with than wood or coal and more economical.

i6 GENERAL DIRECTIONS

Directions for Reading a Gas Meter. — The small dial marked two feet is not to be considered. It is used for testing purposes. Each figure on the right-hand dial indicates loo cubic feet ; on the middle dial each figure indicates looo cubic feet; and on the left-hand dial each figure indicates 10,000 cubic feet.

When meters are new all pointers are at o, but never again are in this position until exactly 100,000 cubic feet have been passed. Read from left dial to right, always taking the figures which the pointers have passed. For example : Suppose y,pu find the pointers on your meter as shown by the heavy lines on the above cut, you record 55,800. At the previous reading, one month before, assimie that the pointers were as shown by the dotted lines, 54,200. This means that during the month your gas consumption sent the pointers from 54,200 to 55,800. You have consumed the difference, which is 1600 cubic feet. Your gas bill would then be written as follows :

State of Meter, last reading 55800

State of Meter, previous reading . . . 54200

Amount consumed 1600

Temperature of the Oven. — Many ranges and stoves now on the market have an oven thermometer or heat regulator on the oven door. If the indicator would show whether the oven is slow, moderate, or fast, with any degree of accuracy, direction could be given in all recipes as to the amount of heat needed and it would not be necessary to open the oven door and test the heat. No oven thermometer that is even fairly accurate, or that can be relied on, is on the market as yet, and the only reliable tests for oven temperature are the old ones, which must be learned by experience. Probably the best way to test the heat of the oven is the hand test. This is done by putting the forearm in the oven and holding it there long enough to ascertain whether the air in the oven is moderately hot, very hot, or what may be termed cool. The terms used to distinguish the different oven temperatures are slow, moderate, hot or fast, and very hot. Generally speaking most foods are best cooked at moderate heat. A good general rule is, the smaller the article to be baked the hotter the oven, or the larger the article the slower the oven. This does not apply in all cases, but the reason for it is that it takes a long time for heat to penetrate to the center of a large mass. If intense heat be applied, a crust forms and the heat does not reach the center readily.

Another way to test the oven temperature is by the use of paper, or bread crumb. The length of time it takes the paper or bread to brown determines the degree of heat in the oven./^In a hot oven a piece of white letter paper will turn to a yellowish brown in from three to five minutes, in a moderate oven it will turn to a yellowish brown in from seven to ten minutes, and in a slow oven it will turn to a yellowish brown in from twelve to fifteen minutes.

EQUIPMENT FOR A SCHOOL KITCHEN FOR A CLASS OF SIXTEEN PUPILS

I. 8 double or i6 single work tables, with drawers to hold the utensils necessary for the average lesson, and with molding boards, and attached seats. II. 1 6 individual gas stoves or burners attached to the tables, or if gas is not in use i6 individual or 8 double burner oil stoves. (See frontispiece.)

III. One large gas oven, or range, or a coal or wood range with a large oven, so that each pupil may have practice in attending to the baking for the class a week at a time or longer. In this way she may know exactly how to manage the range in her own home. She cannot get this practice if nothing but the small individual ovens are provided.

IV. A sink containing hot and cold water faucets. A gas heater may be installed or a water front may be placed in the range, or hot water may be provided by passing water pipes through the furnace and placing a storage tank near. Some arrangement is necessary for providing hot water because the time of teacher and pupils is lost and fuel is wasted if dish water is heated in individual tea kettles and it is a return to primitive conditions.

V. A common kitchen table where the day's supplies are placed in readiness so that no time is lost in getting to work.

VI. A refrigerator.

VII. Screens for every window in the kitchen. VIII. An arrangement for drjdng dishcloths and wiping towels, as rods on the back of the tables.

IX. Shelves or cupboards for utensils. X. A wheeled supply table, a great convenience, though not essential.

List of Utensils for the Individual Work Tables

16 paring knives.

16 spatulas.

16 plated silver or steel knives.

16 plated silver or steel forks.

16 tablespoons.

32 teaspoons.

16 small wooden spoons.

16 Dover egg beaters.

16 spoon egg beaters.

16 one-quart mixing bowls,

16 sieves to fit bowls.

16 glass measuring cups.

16 tin measuring cups.

16 custard cups.

16 utility pans.

16 small tin basins about 55 or 6| inches in diameter for baking purposes.

32 small enameled basins about 55 or 65 inches in diameter.

16 small pie plates about 4 J or 55 inches in diameter.

16 one-quart double boilers.

16 one-quart stewpans ; covers.

i6 small rolling pins.

16 small biscuit cutters.

16 small frying pans.

16 small bread pans.

16 small dishpans.

16 vegetable brushes.

16 corks.

16 small boxes for salt.

16 smaU boxes for pepper.

16 boxes for sugar.

16 boxes for flour.

1 6 cans for baking powder.

Note. — If the work table drawers are small, the utensils not in constant use may be kept in the utensil cupboards.

Additional Utensils for General Use

16 salad or pie plates.

16 breakfast plates.

16 cups and saucers (tea size).

16 water glasses.

8 small teakettles.

8 apple corers.

8 small graters.

8 four- or six-cup muffin pans.

8 two-quart bowls. 8 mixing bowls. 8 doughnut cutters. 8 assorted cooky cutters. 8 trays, assorted sizes. 8 pie tins.

8 two- or three-quart granite or enameled pans.

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8 small lemon squeezers.

8 match boxes.

8 soap dishes.

4 two-quart enameled pails, with

covers, for holding scraps until

they are transferred to the

garbage can. 4 one-quart measures. 4 small colanders. 4 granite kettles. 4 steamers (size of kettles). 4 kettle covers.

4 meat forks. *

4 long-handled skimmers. 4 dripping pans (size of the

oven). 4 roll pans.

4 angel or sponge-cake pans. 4 layer cake pans. 4 sheet cake pans. 4 loaf cake pans. 4 small chopping bowls. 4 small chopping knives. 2 two-quart ice cream freezers. 2 large graters. 2 sink scrapers. 2 large frying pans. 2 two-quart coffeepots. 2 teapots. 2 potato mashers.

I large teakettle.

I set timbal irons.

I flour sifter.

I dipper.

I butcher knife.

I bread knife.

I cake knife.

I carving set.

I potato ricer.

I flour bin.

I two-quart double boiler.

I meat knife.

I pudding mold.

I quart pitcher.

I two-quart pitcher.

I meat chopper.

I large garbage can.

I kitchen scale.

I dustpan.

I waflSe iron.

I funnel.

I corkscrew.

I can opener.

1 small paint brush.

I brush broom.

I stove brush.

I broom.

I hamper for soiled towels.

SO yards of crash for dishcloths

and dish towels. i6 holders. 500 paper napkins.

Articles Needed if Pupils are to Learn to Serve Meals

Dining-room table.

Dining-room chairs.

Tablecloths.

Napkins.

Doihes.

Lunch cloths.

Silverware.

Glassware.

A set of dishes.

CHAPTER IT CLASSES OF FOOD. REASONS FOR COOKING

Introductory. — Very few people ever think of the real reason why they must eat. Probably the only time they are forcibly reminded of it is when they are suffering from some sickness that burns up the tissues and they lose weight. At such times they loathe any food, but are compelled to eat certain foods prescribed by the doctor, so that the body may gain strength to fight the disease.

Boys training in athletic sports learn that they must avoid eating too much or they will gain weight and be unable to perform their feats with agility. They also learn what foods are best to develop muscle.

Every one knows that children who are underfed or improperly fed have no energy for work or even play, and that such children are often stunted in mind and body.

Food, then, must have other uses than to please the taste or satisfy the appetite. Important though these uses are, they are merely Nature's ways to get us to take what we need to keep our bodies strong, healthy, and well developed.

Food Defined. — Food is defined as any substance which, when taken into the body, supplies it with heat or energy or builds tissue.

Energy is stored or latent in aU organic substances ; and when they are burned, the energy is released as heat. Heat is a form of energy.

All foods contain latent energy ; and when they are oxidized, produce heat. Their energy then may be used to keep the body warm or to keep up its various activities. In much the same manner the energy in coal heats the passenger coaches of a train and furnishes the power for the engine which pulls the train.

The body in health is maintained at its normal temperature, 98.6° F., even in the coldest weather, by the oxidation or burning of the food taken in, and not by stove or furnace heat from the outside. In cold weather houses are kept warm and warm clothing is worn so that the body will not lose so much heat to the surrounding air. In summer Ught clothing is worn so that the body will lose heat.

Energy is needed in the body so that the vital processes, such as digestion, respiration, and circulation, may be carried on, and also for work and muscular activity. Though bodily heat and muscular energy are important, they merely result from cell activity. The blood carries oxygen and food to the cells and by the process of oxidation the old cells are burned. To replace them new cells are built up from the food brought by the blood. Cells and tissues must be constantly oxidized, then rebuilt and replaced, because life results in the continual wearing out of the old, and "building up of new tissues, from the food consumed.