Nature-study; a manual for teachers and students

Front matter

STUDY,

NATURE

Ss Qe

Preface

Tuts book is designed as an aid and guide to the practical teacher, and as a text-book in methods of nature-study for normal and training schools.

Part I is devoted to a discussion of underlying principles and methods. A just appreciation of the purpose of nature-study and a good technique in teaching are as essential as a knowledge of subject-matter, especially in a subject like this, which must be taught without text-books.

Part II contains appropriate subject-matter of a biological nature, and practical hints and suggestions on the collection and care of material, and the presentation of lessons. I have, however, avoided working out complete lesson-plans for the teacher, believing it far better to allow her to adapt the subject-matter herself to her own conditions, and to give an opportunity for originality. :

Emphasis is placed on the teaching of life-histories, life-habits, functions and processes, and not on mere structure study. Of chief importance also in nature-study are the adaptations to function and environment, the interrelations of plants and animals, their economic aspects, and practical bearing on human life.

Part III consists of a course of nature-study for the eight grades. It represents a serious effort to organize and imvi PREFACE prove the present-day courses in this subject, and is based upon an exhaustive, comparative examination of the curricula at the principal nature-study centres in this country. The requirements of both city and rural schools are considered, and enough material is given to permit a rich treatment in either case.

In the Appendix is a carefully selected, classified, and annotated list of reference books and nature readers.

A few illustrations have been kindly loaned, for which credit is given in each case. Mrs. Henry Parsons, Director of the Children’s Farm School, New York City, furnished the photograph for figure 97.

I acknowledge my indebtedness and express my gratitude to all who have assisted or encouraged me in the preparation of this book, particularly to my wife; to my former colleagues, Mr. John A. Hancock and Miss Martha V. Collins, of the State Normal School, Mankato, Minn.; to Dr. Stuart H. Rowe, of the Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y.; and to Mr. Geo. P. Englehardt, Children’s Museum, Brooklyn, N. Y.

FREDERICK L, HOLTZ.

TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Feb. 15, 1908.

CHAPTER

Part I

THE MoTIvE IN NaTuRE-STUDY The social motive. Natural interest.

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY Discipline of mental functions: observation, comparison, general reasoning, and imagination. The practical utility of nature-study.

THE AisTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE OF NATURE- STUDY : ‘ : : : : ; Cultural value. Primitive culture. The nature instinct. Enjoyment of nature. Developing sympathetic attitude toward nature. The ethical and spiritual value

of nature-study.

Stupyinc NATURE IN THE GRADES—How anp WHAT.

Informal methods. The scientific method. The development method. The teacher’s preparation. Giving the lesson. Rules for questioning.

Function in the lesson. Kinds of illustrations and their value: actual objects, models, pictures, diagrams, etc. The experiment. The museum. Live specimens. Outdoor observations. The field lesson.

Principles of application—correlation with geography, art study, and literature.

Part II

ANIMAL STUDY . : : ? E : General principles of selection and presentation. Outlines for study of animals. Emphasis on life habits, adaptations, and life histories. Courses of mammal lessons.

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VIII. Ix

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

CONTENTS

Birp STuDY .

Interest in birds. How to observe. Lessons on birds. Bird calendar. Bird habits.

Descriptive of structure aad halbils ‘al bide—nesting, migration, food and economics.

PROTECTION AND PRESERVATION OF BIRDS . Natural enemies and dangers, hunting, millinery, etc. Audubon Society and other protective agencies. Bird

Day. Attracting the birds. Bird houses.

Frocs, Toaps, SALAMANDERS, LizaArpDs, TURTLES, ETC.

Counteracting prejudice and fear for these animals. Development of frog. Economic value of toads, etc.

FISHES—AQUARIA ‘ : ; Stocking and care of aquaria. Study of fish.

TypicaL INSECTS . : F ‘ : Observing and collecting. Mounting: structure, development, habits, and classification of types from the chief orders: Locust, dragon-fly, bug, beetle, butterfly, moth, fly, bee.

InsEcTs, HARMFUL AND OTHERWISE Mosquito, household pests, garden and field cuneate, orchard and forest enemies. Insects and pollination; adaptations. Parasitic insects. Silk-worm. Common harmless insects. Butterflies and moths. Protective form and color, and mimicry.

Some LowER ANIMALS ; ; ; Spiders—their structure, habits, webs: Cray-fish, lobsters, etc. Snails and bivalves. Earthworm. Coral. Sponge.

THe ScHOOL GARDEN . ‘ ; é ; Function as outdoor ata Moral training by means of gardening. Value in city. Need of practical agricultural training in the country. How to make a school garden. Indoor gardening. Horticultural and gardening hints. Insecticides and fungicides. Plant lists.

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVII. Lessons witH PLANTS Sas . . : Germination studies. Root function. Biennials. Stem structure and function. Tree trunks. Propagation stems. Buds. Leaves and their functions—transpiration and starch-making. -Modified leaves. The flower anditsfunction. Pollination. Types of flowers. How to study the whole plant. Movements of plants. Seed dispersal. Grasses and cereals. Useful plants.

XVIII. TREES

Growth and life of a tree. Stem structure. Foliage. Autumn coloration and leaf-fall. Flowers and fruit. Conditions determining forest distribution. Forest conditions. Influences and uses of forests. Destructive agencies. Arbor Day—purpose, programmes. Beautification of school-grounds. Tree-planting.

XIX. FLOWERLESS PLANTS : é ‘ .

Fern, Equisetum, moss, liverwort, lichen, and mushrooms.

PART III GRADED CouRSE OF NATURE-STUDY . APPENDIX REFERENCE Books AND NATURE READERS

INDEX . 3 é a j 3 - < ; ‘ Fe ix

PAGE

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Butterflies (Colored) . . 3 : 3 : : . Frontispiece

PAGE Guinea Pigs : : a i : 2 : % 935 School Specimen Cabinet 4 ‘ . ‘ - 44 Nature-Study Class on a Field Lesson : é 3 . $ 4 50 Brook at Work Removing a Landslide : 2 ‘ é . - 56 Blue Jay (Pupil’s Work) . : . s ‘ é - 58 Pupils’ Drawing. Tulips . : : : : ; . A 4 ‘63 Good Comrades ‘ ‘ ; . ‘ é : 5 4 92 Bat with Membranous Wings 5 3 . . ; » 74a A Female Rose-Breasted Grosbeak with Young. s : : » 182 Wing of Chicken with Quills and Coverts . : . : F 92 Wing of Chicken Showing Attachment of Ses : A - 93 Barn Swallow’s Nest . : : 4 - 94 Nest of Chipping Sparrow . . : : - : a 3 - 95 Nest of Wood Thrush . : ‘ ‘ : é ‘ F « 97 Chimney Swift . : . ‘ : ‘ ‘ 5 : ‘ - 102 Robin’s Nest. : , : : : ; : : : . IO Oriole’s Nest. 7 : ‘i f ‘ ; p 4 TTD Humming-Bird’s Nest F : ; : Z ~ 213 Wren Box, Showing Nest and Young. é ; : z 2 . 14 Young Grosbeaks, just Hatched 4 F % ‘ : . 116 A Weedy Corn-field, Feeding Ground of Birds . é : i ene Feeding the Chickens : : 3 : : & 22 Apple Tree PoUPane Woodpecker’ s Work . : : : i B25 Red Owl . : ; é : : - 128 Hunting Grouse é a ‘ E s a : : A 934 Young Grosbeaks : : ‘ é ‘ . ‘ é ; *. P40 Bird’s Drinking Trough . é 5 : i ‘ = - 144 Bird Houses and Robin Tae : 3 3 . , ‘ ‘ - 146 Frog’s Eggs : . i 3 F 5 : 5 - 149 Toad’s Eggs ‘ 3 ° 3 : = 3 ‘ . - 150 Development of Frog : é : Z : : : : « T5t The Toad . : ‘ ‘ : - : z aS Protective Coloration of the Toad. : : e fi 3 - 158 Aquaria. : : A e : : - 166 Aquarium with Sunfish 3 : A : 2 F : s - 168 The Gill of a Fish. ; 5 : . s “ a7E Pond for Collecting Aquatic Creatures , “ : : : - 178 Decaying ee Bere Insects . : é : : - 179

Insect Net . ‘ P 5 A i . 180 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

. PAGE Russian “Thistle”? . ‘ 3 s . ‘ , F . - 346 Wing Fruit of Elm. ‘ r . 4 ; is » 247 Dandelion Gone to Seed . ‘ . F - 3 ‘ - 348 Cocklebur . © , S + 350 Waahoo Bush Displaying Fruit After Leaf-Fall . : : + 351 Explosive Fruits : é 5 : * x a s 352 Timothy Grass in Flower . : ; : ‘ a “ - 354 Grass Flower . ; ‘ ‘ : j % ‘ ‘ ¥ » 355 Indian Corn Plant . i * : ‘ 2 > 355 Staminate Flower of Indian Corn * ‘ ‘ x ‘ . - 356 Ear of Corn or Pistillate Flowers i : * : : ‘ - 356 The Forest ‘ : é ‘i ; 7 : . 5 : - 359 Trunk of Red Oak P F r P 360 White Elm in Flower . : : 364

Cottonwood Trees by a River : : : : : ‘ . : 365

Shelf Pore-Fungus. ‘ . E : . . - : - 367 Grove of Hard Maples 3 Z F ‘ 3 . : : . 369 Denuded Hill Showing Erosion D . . a B : » 371 Unshaded School-Grounds . i x z F 5 * 376 Farm Homestead Surrounded by Trees : F 3 : “ S377 A Wounded Tree Healing es : : . : : - 382 A Street Beautified by Shade Trees . : . - : 3 - 384 Trees and Vines Improve a House . : ¢ : - 2 - 386 Spore Dots on a Fern Leaf - - : ‘ . : ° - 389 Moss-Covered Boulder : 2 . : . 2 . . + 390 Liverwort Encrusting a Cliff ‘ i + 391 Agaricus Campestris . , ‘ . . . . . 392 Development of Mushroom s 393 Poisonous Toadstool, Amanita . , ‘ _ ‘ ‘ ‘ 304 Wood-Destroying Toadstool . : . . . . 395

Part I

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NATURE-STUDY be in an intelligent relation with man and nature, just as.much as in adult years.

The child wants to know about the coal and industrial life around him, and the origin, working, and use of the manifold devices and processes on every hand. He not only wants to know these things for himself, but that he may explain them to others; to entertain, to be helpful and useful to others. Later comes the desire to share in the world’s work as a self-supporting member of society.

When studies are presented with this social consideration the pupils appreciate the motive themselves—perhaps not fully—but enough to make them feel it worth their while to study. A real interest is infused into their work, a real object to be gained is perceived. ‘They feel that they are studying not merely for the sake of learning, but for the bearing it has upon their own lives.

The reality of the studies and their connection with life are made very evident when they are drawn from the child’s immediate home, the surrounding fields and hills, the school-house itself, and the industries of his community. Household articles, the kitchen processes, the hygienic measures of the school, the plants and animals of the garden, farm, and forest, the varied occupations of the community, and the innumerable machines and processes by which these are carried on—all claim attention and demand investigation. A study of the fundamental industries of man, especially in their primitive form, leading up to their present development, affords not only an intelligent grasp of the social industries, but gives an historic insight into their development which increases the social value of the information. Moreover, a rational basis is laid for the study of history and geography.

THE MOTIVE 5

Geography proper furnishes many suggestions for nature lessons and also provides the social motive again. Numerous topics of human interest referred to in this subject can be explained by nature-study, and their bearing upon life emphasized. ‘The two subjects should be closely correlated.

Manual training and domestic science, two other great socializing studies of the school, are dependent upon nature-study for many explanations of materials and methods. There is a need to know the properties of the materials and the way of making things. The value of nature-study in this case is apparent. Here the knowledge is recognized not as an end, but as a means to accomplish something to be desired. Simple biology, chemistry, and physics, thus correlated with manual training and domestic economy, are seen to have much to do with human affairs. The simple application of nature-study in this way in school leads to an appreciation of the scientific basis of our sanitary and economic methods of the home, school, and community, and our complex industrial life generally. By such a correlation these “making” subjects are enriched, and their intellectual content is increased.

Nature-study has a satisfactory raison d’étre for the child, if presented in the manner suggested. The school life in a measure reflects the community life and enables him to live in that community intelligently.

But the child is interested in nature-study in another way. The social interest is, perhaps, the dominant one; but another more purely intellectual impulse prevails. This is the outcome of curiosity, wonder—and is the complement of the social interest in bringing him into right relationship with the world.

The child wonders about the objects and phenomena of nature; he is curious about them, perhaps for no reason except that they attract his attention. He feels that he must know what and why these things are, and this irrespective of any consideration of the usefulness or applicability of the knowledge to himself or to society. In much the same way the adult scientist craves a satisfying explanation of, or insight into, many facts of nature. I believe this powerful impulse should not be neglected in education, though it may be carried too far and lead to mere book learning, with a disregard for the fact that, in general, knowledge should be a means and not an end in itself. Nevertheless, this knowledge gained through mere curiosity, though not always practical, affords much satisfaction and pleasure. It is the basis for our esthetic and spiritual view of nature. It creates a certain pleasant familiarity with nature, and on one’s rambles in the park or in the country makes one feel en rapport with it. Through this curiosity we learn of many interesting and beautiful relations in the natural world. We find that a unity prevails and we discern a plan more or less clearly. In short, this impulse arising from curiosity finally places the individual in harmony with the natural world and adds in a great measure to general culture.

This harmonizing of man and nature is an essential element in education. It must not be forgotten, however, that much of this knowledge gained from curiosity or—to use another expression—in the search for truth may later be found to be of great, perhaps the highest, practical value. Through this everlasting spirit of inquiry many important facts and principles have been discovered, and the field of human vision widened.

THE MOTIVE 9

The child should be allowed to investigate freely in nature whatever his interest suggests. This sympathy with birds, insects, plants, and even inanimate nature is one of the most desirable things he can get from nature-study. If nothing more it ought to make him happier in this wonderful and beautiful world.

If we utilize as we should these natural interests or innate impulses of the child, we have enough of stimulus or motive to vitalize nature-study.

Chapter II The Educational Value Of Nature-study

Tue child should be given such educational material as suits his childhood interests and needs. This does not mean to let him learn simply what he likes and in his own way. He may like what is not good for him. The experience and wisdom of his parents and teachers must be used in shaping his education. The child’s and the adult’s view of education need not be incompatible. The child should be so educated as to live as completely as possible his transient childhood years, but by the foresight and experience of his elders he may also receive discipline of mind and character, and be supplied with the knowledge necessary for adult life as well.

When the mind is applied to the study of natural objects and phenomena all its powers receive some discipline. In the first place there is the power of observation, perhaps not the highest faculty, and yet a very necessary and fundamental one. For through the power of perception we learn of things outside of ourselves. An infant devoid of this power could not develop mentally. But this is the first faculty exercised by the normal child. He begins in the cradle to observe things by touching, hearing, seeing, tasting, and smelling them. This is his first education. It is a well-known fact that any of these senses can be made keener and more accurate by practice. Contrariwise it is true that they become dulled 8

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY 9 by disuse. Since the senses are the gateway for our knowledge of the outer world, it is necessary to train them well. We must learn to perceive things as they really are. Clear and truthful perceptions are the basis of sound thinking.

But observation should lead to thought. The mind should be receptive, should take in the newly observed facts and connect them with what is already known. That is, there should be what is pedagogically called apperception, as well as perception, in order to make intellectual progress, to increase the sum of individual knowledge.

Now, nature-study is especially suitable for stimulating and training the power of observation. There are hosts of animate and inanimate things to be observed and thought about. In such thinking there is something tangible and concrete. The object can be seen and handled, perhaps. Children are not mature enough for much abstract thinking. Hence object-study is more suitable for them. By a proper selection of material and proper guidance, the child may be made more observant of natural things around him, to his lasting benefit and pleasure.

In the education of our children we seem to neglect the hint that nature herself has given us. Before school-days begin education is chiefly through observation. The founders of the kindergarten taught that this method should be continued in the school, and not set aside by the use of books, as is so generally the case. Books have a very great value, but they give their information at second hand. A book tells what some one else thinks about something, and no reader of such a book can get as vivid or perfect a knowledge of the thing as had the author, who learned the fact first hand. “Seeing is believing” is a maxim full of truth. We should keep up the spirit of personal observation and investigation. If this is not done the child is too apt to be satisfied with mere statements in books or by teachers, and too ready to accept another’s opinion as his own. A little healthy scepticism in studying is a good thing, especially where one can find out for himself the actual facts. Nature-study aims to keep alive the inquiring spirit.

It has been said that the child is a young savage. This is true in several respects. Science tells us that an animal or a plant in its physical development passes in general through the stages through which the race to which it belongs has passed in its development. For example, in the embryology of the frog there is a stage that is like the fish—the tadpole stage. Other facts prove the origin of frogs from fish-like ancestors. Every frog repeats this fish-like stage.

It has become an educational maxim that the mental evolution of a child corresponds in a measure to the mental evolution of the race to which he belongs. That is, the child exhibits mental traits that were once characteristic of his race when in the primitive state. In pedagogy we hear this spoken of as the Culture Epoch Theory, and though it is not fully worked out in its applications, this theory is already useful in education. We cannot safely change the course of nature in the development of mind or body. It is better to take a suggestion from nature and to work with, rather than against, her.

A young child, though he may not show his savagery in cruelty, nevertheless shows his interests to be chiefly in objective things—in people, human activities, and natural objects. Children are proverbially inquisitive regarding natural objects. In childhood are formed the attachments

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY 11 to pets. Boys are interested in hunting, fishing, and outdoor sports, and like to play Indians. Children also like birds and plants. Their nature-love seems to be instinctive, and is probably an inheritance from their savage, nature-loving ancestry.

Then let us give the child opportunity to taste nature as much as possible, and use this inherent interest to teach him about his natural environment. Repeat the old story. Teach him the good things he can use and enjoy and the bad things that he should avoid.

Mathematics gives the mind excellent training in abstract thinking and familiarizes the mind with logical processes. But nature-study also trains the reasoning powers. The reasoning afforded by science in general is not abstract, but more concrete and more like the reasoning of every-day life. In nature-study a child observes a number of facts, or a series of phenomena, and from them makes a generalization or conclusion. He learns the principle of cause and effect. He sees that things are not left to chance, but that the rule of cause and effect governs all action. He learns to apply this rule in other fields of thought, in literature, history, civics, politics, and personal conduct. The comparison and classification of natural objects give an excellent training in systematic thought. The derivation of laws from experiments or observations affords the best of practice in inductive reasoning, while deduction is employed in every application of these laws.

By imagination the facts once learned are recalled and brought into new relations. In this new relation they combine to form new ideas or to suggest new thoughts. By unrestricted exercise of the power of imagination mental products can be formed that have no counterpart in reality. The result may be pure fancy. Although this may be legitimate in literature and art, it has no place in science. In the search for truth the imagination should be watched lest it lead astray. In science-study there is abundant opportunity for the exercise and also, which is important, the control of the imagination. “Of all the powers of the mind it is certainly that which is most important in giving originality to the results of thought,” say Hall and Smith! “But in proportion to its value and activity is the difficulty of controlling its operations. The imagination is a good servant but a bad master. The opportunity which is offered in experimental science to test the results of imagination by comparison, again and again renewed, with the concrete materials with which it has been dealing, furnishes an unrivalled opportunity to practise and control it.” While the above applies especially to the maturer study of the sciences it also applies in nature-study. Children love to theorize if given the chance, and they should be taught to check their imagination with the facts before them.

Many people cannot appreciate the value of mental training merely for the sake of sharpening the wits, and decry all education that cannot be applied directly to the earning of dollars and cents. ‘What is the wse of such learning?” they ask. This is a practical generation, and education must meet the practical test of every-day life. If any subject has practical value it is natural science, for through it we become better acquainted with our environment. Man will never be free from the natural conditions that now affect his life. He will always need food, clothing, and shelter; he

1‘ Teaching of Physics and Chemistry,” p. 11.

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF NATURE-STUDY 13 will need to make implements and tools to furnish these; he. will want conveniences and pleasures above his animal needs; he will be subject to disease and physical accidents, and will need to prevent or remedy them. These stern necessities he can meet only if he knows how todo so. The better he understands the laws of nature, the better knowledge he has of the properties and uses of plants and animals and the products of nature, the better he can distinguish between the good and the bad natural agencies, so much better will he be able to live without cold, hunger, pain, and fear. As long as he acts in accordance with natural laws, all is well; but he is punished for the slightest-transgressions. This is seen most obviously in the matter of hygiene. More people die through ignorance of the laws of health than are destroyed in wars.

Chapter III The Aesthetic And Ethical Value Of Nature-study

KNOWLEDGE is power. It is also pleasure or affords pleasure. Many students learn for the mere pleasure of learning. This is the case of the scientist who discovers the laws of nature or proves a theory, without a thought of their practical application. Even a child in the satisfaction of his curiosity has:a similar feeling.

But we can get sweet and helpful pleasure also from the sensuous enjoyment of the beauty of nature’s forms and colors, the songs of birds and the sound of running waters, the fragrance of the flowers and the smell of the earth and sea, the delicious flavor of fruit, the warmth of the genial sunshine, the touch of our feet on the ground, or the feel of the earth as we lie upon it. These pleasures of the senses, though not the higher kind, should not be neglected. Without them life would be much more matter-of-fact and uninteresting. Just as it is right to enjoy sensuously good music or the lines and coloring of a beautiful work of art, and as it is right to train the ear for music and the eye to discriminate beauty in art, just so is it right for us to enjoy nature through the senses, and to cultivate them so that we may enjoy more fully and intelligently. These animal sensations of the charms of nature add immensely to the pleasure of living, and, directly or indirectly, affect our views of life. 14

AESTHETIC AND ETHICAL VALUE 15

Nature-study has perhaps been the chicf factor in the culture development of the human race. At first man was the fearful slave of nature, seeking a precarious existence, struggling blindly with natural forces. Then he became nature’s pupil. By observation of the creatures about him and by personal experience he learned to adapt himself better to his environment. The more he learned the better fitted he became for life, and the more his mind expanded. Simple inventions of tools, the domestication of animals, and the cultivation of plants soon made the slave the master, so that to-day man takes advantage of his environment, utilizes the resources of nature, and even directs her course very largely for his own ends.

As children of to-day personify, so primitive man attempted to explain the wonderful phenomena of nature about him by personifying the mysterious forces that so powerfully affected his life. Thus mythology and religion had their origin. The ideas awakened by, and the pleasures derived from, nature have had very much to do with the development of poetry, music, painting, and sculpture.

Our relations with nature are of long standing. The dependence of our forefathers on the forest, the sea, the wild animals, and the elements has been deeply impressed upon the human race, so that even many generations of artificial urban life have not entirely obliterated our nature instinct,— the impulse that leads us back to nature. In many this instinct is very pronounced and needs but little encouragement. In others it is less developed and may entirely disappear from persistent disuse. It should, however, be developed into the habit of active and discriminating observation and the correct interpretation of nature.

Children generally display this nature instinct more than adults, though not as much as many adults. The child likes the pretty colored insects, leaves, and birds. He likes to play in the earth, and to frolic with pets and wild animals. Thesympathy for pets and, through them, for other creatures is one of the finest things we can teach through nature-study. ‘The child is greatly interested in the animals of the farm, in their uses and care. He likes flowers and fruit, and can be readily taught to care for growing plants. There is an esthetic and a moral as well as an educational element in the cultivation of potted plants, trees, gardens, etc. Children love to roam about in the fields and forests and enjoy the mystery of their numberless discoveries. They like to be on the water, or init. They like to fish, hunt, and camp. They like to play the primitive life of the Indian or the pioneer.

Later, as imagination and knowledge develop, comes the enjoyment of scenery, the landscape, the sea, and sky effects ; later, also, the appreciation of the beautiful adaptations and interrelations in nature. Then, too, come the perception and admiration of natural forces and the laws according to which they act, and the attempts to see a unity and a guidance in the universe. Enjoyment of nature becomes more and more conscious. Personal applications are made of nature’s principles. We try to fit into the world-scheme —and our religious and philosophical interests develop.