The crown of Hinduism

Preface

This book is an attempt to discover and state as clearly as possible what relation subsists between Hinduism and Christianity. It is not meant to be an exhaustive account of Hinduism, though it deals with most of its prominent features. There are other aspects of the religion which might have been included. Among these the chief is sacrifice and the priest, a subject not less interesting and fruitful than those dealt with in the volume. The reason for its omission is this, that there are large parts of the subject which have not been investigated by scholars, and it was impossible for me to undertake that serious piece of exploration myself. Yet, despite this and other omissions, the book probably contains sufficient material to enable readers to decide whether its main thesis is justifiable.

The book was begun in the hope that all that had to be said could be built on foundations already laid by the great scholars ; but that proved impossible, and it became necessary for me to undertake several

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PREFACE pieces of original investigation myself. It was not my wish to do so ; but it was inevitable. The truth is that a large number of scholarly studies of very high quality have been conducted within the realm of Hinduism during the last century, but comparatively few of them have viewed Hinduism as a practical religion ; and it has been necessary, for the sake of the subject, to regard the religion from that point of view throughout this volume.

The foot-notes indicate with some degree of accuracy my indebtedness to books, but there is no way in which I can show how much I owe to scores of friends, Hindu, Brahma, and Christian, in every part of India, who have given me unlimited help both in conversation and by correspondence. To all such friends I wish to express here my most sincere gratitude. I owe very special thanks to the Rev. C. F. Andrews of Delhi, who read the whole work in manuscript with extreme care and made many suggestions of great value. I am also indebted to the Rev. D. Emlyn Evans of Mirzapore, who has done me the great kindness of reading the proofs.

Oxford,

Contents

PAGE

I. The new era of world- wide communication and its results on

religion il

Chapter I

I. The religion of the undivided Aryans 66

II. The religion of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Aryan stock . 66

III. The religion of the Indo-Aryans as seen in the Rigveda . 68

IV. The religion of the Rigveda in relation to the Arya Samaj and

to Christianity 75

Chapter II

I. The patriarchal family 78

II. The patriarchal family of the Hindus 82

III. The modern movement for the reform of the Hindu family . 104

IV. The new principles required for the family are supplied by

Christ 1 16

V. Christ’s principles form the natural crown of the Hindu

family 131

CONTENTS

CHAPTER III The Eternal Moral Order PAGE

I. Rise of the doctrine of karma and rebirth . . . • t34

II. Influence of the doctrine on the beliefs and practices of

Hinduism 138

III. Decay of the doctrine under Western influence . . . 148

Chapter IV

I. Early society 153

II. Various forms of social advance 155

III. Rise of the Hindu social order 157

IV. Outline of the caste system 163

V. Good results of the system 167 •

VI. Modern anti-caste movements 16S

VII. The religious basis of caste has faded out of the minds of

educated men 177

VIII. Parallel movements in other lands iS^

IX. Christ supplies the religious basis necessary for modern

society 191

X. Hindu social ideals find completion in Christ. . . . 203

CHAPTER V The Essentials of Hinduism

I. Outline of the system 211

II. Leading characteristics of the system 214

HI. The obligatory elements of the system 216

Chapter VI

I. Rise of the Vedanta philosophy 219

II. Its noble qualities 225

HI. Significance of the doctrine that the Atman is actionless . 228^

IV. Relation of the philosophy to the popular religion . . . 232

V. Rise of the other schools 235

VI. Later history of the Vedanta 241

VTl. ^ankaracharya 243

CONTENTS

Chapter VII Page

I. Austerities in the Rigvedic age 247

II. Early asceticism : the Hermits 249

III. World-renunciation: the Monks 253

IV. Modem asceticism 264

V. Etherealization ascribed to ascetics 268

VH. Miraculous powers ascribed to ascetics 270

VII. Hindu ascetics are inactive, while the modern man demands

active service 272

VIII. Christ stirs men to service 276

IX. Christ’s method of creating servants of humanity completes

the Hindu ascetic discipline 281

Chapter VIII

I. Hindu gods in early literature 297

II. Genesis of image-worship 300

III. Sketch of the history of Hindu images 303

IV. Hindu images parallel to those of other lands . . . 305

V. The cult of Hindu temples 312

VI. Hindu beliefs about the images of the gods .... 317

VII. The history behind Hindu idolatry 327

VIII. Hindu idolatry criticized by Hindus 332

IX. Hindu idolatry defended by Hindus 334

X. The religious needs which inspire Hindu idolatry . . . 339

XL Christ, the image of God, satisfies these aspirations and needs

in spiritual ways 343

Chapter IX

I. Early history' of the Vishnuite and ^ivaite sects and Buddhism 351

II. The theology of the Vedanta introduced into the sects and

into Buddhism 364

III. Later history of the sects 377

“ IV. Influence of the doctrine of Incarnation 388

V. Results of the introduction of the theology of the Vedanta

into the sects 390

VI. Master-forces in the development of the theology of the sects 392

V

CONTENTS

Chapter X Page

I. The Christian conception of God 408

II. The Christian doctrine of man ...... 419

III. The mythical incarnations of Hinduism and the historical

Christ 421

IV. Christ fulfils the Indian ideal of the incarnate One . . 429

Chapter XI

I. The difference between a religion and a philosophic theory . 445

II. The Hindu religious organism and its superstitious practices 446

III. The Hindu system in relation to the philosophies . . . 452

IV. Neo-Hindus and the system 454

V. Christ the Crown of Hinduism 457

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES

A.

Andrews

Apastamba

Akvaldyana

B.

Batidhayana

B> dhmaftism and Hinduism

Deussen Divine Wisdom

E. R. E.

Gautama

Glover

Great Epic Griffith

Growse

Heart of India Holy Lives

Iyengar’s Outlines

I. S. R.

J. R. A. S.

Kaegi

Macdonell

Madhva

Manu

Modern Jainism

Ar any aka.

Andrews, The Renaissance in India.

Apastamba Dharmasutra.

Asvaldyatia Grihyasutra.

Brahmana.

Baudhdyana Dharmasiitra.

Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Govindachaiya, Divine Wisdom of the Di'dvida Saints.

Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

Gautama Dharmasutra.

Glover, The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire.

Hopkins, The Great Epic of India.

Griffith, The Rdmdyaiia of Vdlmlki in English Verse.

Growse, The Rdmdyana of Tulsi Dds.

Barnett, The Heart of India.

Govindacharya, The Holy Lives of the Azhvdrs.

•Srinivasa Iyengar, Outlines of Indian Philosophy.

International Review of Missions.

Indian Social Reformer.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

The Rigveda by Adolf Kaegi.

Macdonell, Sanskrit Literature.

Padmanabha Char, The Life and Teaching of Sri Madhvacharyar.

Mdnava Dharmasdstra. Biihler, S. B. E.,

XXV.

Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Notes on Modern Jainism.

JO ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES

Oman

Paraskara

Phillips

Pope

Rdmakrish tia

Rdmdiinja

Ranade

Ranade, Essays

Religious Sects Saiva Siddhdnta

S. B. E.

Siva Bhakti Six Systems

Sri Sahkardchdrya

Suzuki

T.

Trevelyan

U.

Vasishtha

Vivekananda

Warren

Westcott

Oman, The Mystics, Ascetics, and Saints of India.

Pdraskara Grihyasiitra.

Phillips, The Outcastes' Hope.

Pope, The Tiruvdqagam.

Max Muller, Rdmakrishna, His Life and Saymgs.

Govindacharya, Life of Rdmdnuja.

Ranade, Rise of the Marat ha Power.

Ranade, Religious and Social Reform, A Collection of Essays ajtd Speeches.

Murdoch, The Religious Sects of the Hindus.

NallasvamI Pillai, Studies in Saiva Siddhdnta.

Sacred Books of the East.

Murdoch, Siva Bhakti.

Max Muller, Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy.

Sri Sahkardchdrya, His Life and Times, by Krishnasamy Aiyar and Sitanath Tattvabhushan.

Suzuki, Asvaghosha's Awakening of Faith in the Mahdydna.

Tantra.

Trevelyan, Hindu Family Law.

Upanishad.

Dharmasutra of Vasishtha.

Speeches and Writings of Swdmi Vivekdnanda.

Warren, Buddhism in Translations.

W estcott, Kabir atid the Kabir Panth.

I. We have entered upon a new era. All parts of the world have at last been brought into communication with one another. We read news of every land at our breakfast tables. The nations have become one city : we buy each other’s goods ; we read each other’s books ; we think each other’s thoughts. The unity of the human race has become effective for the first time in human history. From now it will be possible to talk of full human intercourse : in the past all has been but racial and partial. Only now do we begin to hear the music of humanity.

This new condition of things has been brought about partly by extended exploration, still more by the progressive improvement of our means of communication, but, most of all, through the extension of good government over large parts of the earth’s area and the effective policing of the waters of the ocean. Without peace on land and sea, our knowledge of the earth’s surface and our means of communication would be comparatively valueless. Peace on earth brings goodwill amongst men.

Every one can already see large results arising from this world-wide intercourse. All the civilized peoples are learning from each other. There is a rapid process of assimilation going on, in industry, business methods, education, science, art, literature, morals, and religion, in part most peacefully, but here and there with a good deal of strife and friction.

What the final outcome will be, no man can yet say ; but one does not risk much in prophesying that the results are certain to be very great, since the rate of human progress is likely to be indefinitely accelerated under the new conditions.

The evolution of our human life has entered upon a new stage, and incalculable benefits are likely to arise. Only now have human knowledge and skill a chance of doing their best. Only now have the greatest forces an opportunity to act. Much of our past history may be put down under the head of the removal of hindrances to progress. From now onwards a man’s work, when it is really valuable, will tell all over the world ; while in past ages the best work has often been restricted in its influences for a long time to a small group of peoples or to a single nation. We are very rapidly approaching the moment when every piece of new knowledge will be absorbed by every nation as soon as it is acquired, and when the experience of any one nation, whether in industry, in art, in morality, or in religion, will be at once appreciated, caught up, and used the world over.

Here we restrict ourselves to the results produced on religion by the arrival of the new period. All the religions of the world that are of any importance have already been brought into effective contact the one with the other, and, in consequence, have begun to display to the utmost the treasures they severally possess. Each is driven by the instinct of self-preservation to seek to win other men to its fold.

Another most important fact in the situation is the rise of the Science of Religion. The scientific consciousness which recognizes the unity of the religious life of man, the evolution hypothesis through which the most varied and seemingly most contradictory phenomena are ranged in intelligible order within the bounds of that unity, and the eager passion to know how the early tribes of men thought about God and sought to approach Him, provided the intellectual conditions required ; while the necessary material, viz. information about the religions of the world, became available through the unveiling of the ancient languages of India, Persia, Babylonia, Assyria, and Egypt, and through the opening of communications with all the inhabited lands. Our knowledge is still far from complete ; and there are many lines of reflection which have as yet been scarcely thought of ; yet the science has reached great proportions, and the results already attained are of inestimable value for thought.

The first outcome of this great accumulation of fresh religious material has been a feeling of deep surprise at the riches of / the heritage of some of the great religions, espeeially in philosophy and in art. Henee an immense interest has been created in them, not only among students of religion as such, but among the cultured public in general. The growth of this interest these last ten years has been very remarkable. It is reflected in the publication of a large number of popular books on various aspects of Eastern religions. This deepened ' interest has given birth to a new feeling of brotherliness in religion, a sympathy with men of other faiths, which is most 1 precious and fraught with future good. There is a keen desire i for interchange of thought, for increased knowledge, for scientific consideration, and as keen a distaste for controversy. There is a deepened consciousness of the sacredness and intimacy of religion. Certain common elements in the chief religions have been welcomed with enthusiasm. The mere realization that such things exist has produced much sympathy. There is an inclination to regard the great religions as a group of noble peers, worthy of the utmost mutual respect, and a hope that it may be possible for sincere religious men of j every race and faith to unite and work together.

Yet it must be confessed that, apart from those who have set themselves to the laborious study of the religions of the world, the new movement is still marked by curiosity rather than by knowledge, and that it is romantic and dilettante rather than scientific or religious. Those who are carried along by the new current and are most ready to talk enthusiastically about religious philosophy, literature, and art are often the very people who are most impatient of the real heart of all true religion. Men and women who have lost hold of their own religion, and miss the warm glow of faith in their lives, are caught by a fancy for some curious or attractive element in another faith ; and, without waiting to consider what its practical worth may be, snatch at it and sing its praise. There is thus a good deal that is foolish and unreal in the movement.

Yet these things are on the surface. The new attitude is a prophecy of much better things to come. As knowledge increases and study becomes deeper, many of those who are now triflers will come to realize the dominant place which religion holds in national life, its primacy as the creative power in morality, society, and the family, and the vast results which the centuries work out in the life of a people from a single religious principle. They will begin to see what serious religion is in the life of an individual, and the incalculable value of the truly religious man to his people.

II. The progress of the Science of Religion has brought great gains to several departments of scientific inquiry, especially to theology. Among the more notable services rendered by the science are its proof that every race of man is religious, its convincing demonstration that religion is one of the practical activities of man as man, and that it has a great deal to do with the building of human society, the creation of institutions, and the laying of the foundations of morality. It has transformed all studies of individual religions by showing the importance of worship and explaining the purpose of ritual. It has made the function of belief and the position of literature in religion far clearer than before. It has shown us how frequently parallel beliefs and practices have been developed in different nations quite independently, and has thus made us chary of declaring that there has been borrowing, unless there be unmistakable evidence. The anthropological side of the study has thrown a flood of light on the earlier forms of religion, making much comprehensible which was obscure before, and has enabled us to detect many a survival from early times in the religions of civilized peoples.

A. But there is one aspect of the religious problem which has

/ been scarcely touched by the science as yet, namely, the relative value of the different religions. Only when we have a calculus for determining the practical value of each religion shall we be able to set them in their true relationship to one another. To the present writer at least it seems that students of the science have as yet scarcely thought of this as one of its tasks. There are, it is true, many observations scattered up and down the books which have a bearing on this question.

The very classification of religions as tribal, national, and universal, as natural or ethical, as ritualistic or spiritual, and the recognition that the low religions appear to be in many respects a parody of the higher faiths — these all suggest practical judgements. Here and there, also, a writer strikes a clear note, definitely declaring one religion to be of far greater value than others, or pointing out the practical difference between two faiths ; yet even he usually writes in such a way as to show that he regards this part of the subject as outside the legitimate work of the science and belonging to the domain of personal opinion. No author is at his ease in giving expression to his convictions : the Christian expresses himself either dogmatically or tentatively, while the anti- Christian is apt to assume a defiant tone. There is seldom / the quiet, assured attitude of science ; and one meets no attempt to treat the subject in large, orderly, sober fashion.

Yet, after all, is not this the one living issue involved in the study of the science? How does the science impinge on life, if it has no answer to the practical question ?

B. Meantime the need of a clear statement of the practical relationship of Christianity to the other great religions has become urgent.

I. The need is seriously felt from the inside.

{a) The coming of the Science of Religion and the universal interest in non-Christian systems have made it most necessary, for both the clergy and the people, that the real relationship of Christianity to other religions should be thought out and clearly expressed. The altered courses of most Theological i6

I

Colleges prove that attempts are already being made to meet this need in the education of preachers ; but for the man in the pew comparatively little has yet been done.

{b) The missionary movement is steadily growing in strength, influence, and self-consciousness. Its large importance is now clearly perceived and frankly acknowledged by Governments and by scientific men.^ The work is everywhere making progress. The latest census results in India are in complete accord with the growth of the Church elsewhere. Christians consequently want to understand more clearly the aim and the work of the movement. The World Missionary Conference held in Edinburgh in 1910 is the most prominent expression of this desire. But, meanwhile, a method of considerable significance and promise has arisen within the churches. Courses of Mission Study, which deal in scientific fashion with non- Christian religions and with the aims and activities of Missions, are written annually, and are studied by groups of young people in Mission Study Circles.

{c) Missionaries feel far more keenly than ever before the need of stating clearly how their work and their faith stand related to the systems they are face to face with ; and they are in great perplexity as to how to put things. In many fields there is a divergence of opinion as to the attitude which the Christian ought to adopt to the non-Christian religions. In India there is a party, small or large, who distinctly disapprove of the attitude adopted towards Hinduism by the Commission of the Edinburgh Conference which dealt with the Missionary Message. See Dr. Cairns’s masterly summary in the fourth volume of the Report of the Conference.

{d) For the sake of the young churches now growing up in the various Mission fields a sane estimate of the old religions in relation to Christianity is most necessary. The churches will inevitably be influenced by the faiths which form part of their environment. It is therefore of extreme importance that the leaders should understand the forces which are round ' /. R.M., July, 1912, pp. 526-528.

about them, in order that they may set themselves to resist the evil and may be ready to welcome all that is good.

2. On the other hand, Christians are compelled to seek an understanding of the relation of their religion to other faiths in order to meet objections from the outside. The world-changes to which we have made reference have necessarily led to great changes in religious thought and belief. It was inevitable that Christianity should be deeply affected. Each of its fundamental ideas has reference to all men. Whoever holds the religion with conviction and intelligence necessarily looks forward to its becoming the cherished possession of every human being. Missionary work is the most vital activity of the faith. The Church must expand, or perish of unbelief. Hence new thought about the religious life of the world necessarily reacts with immeasurable force upon Christianity. Every universal principle stands in similar hazard. The new period has thus quite naturally brought with it new forms of opposition and criticism.

There is a far deeper cleavage of opinion upon the missionary question in Europe and America than there was twenty years ago. While the central party in each church which supports Missions is more convinced and more active than ever ; and more money and men are available than at any earlier period ; the dull, dead indifference of former years has now formed a conscious centre and expresses itself in demands for the restriction of missionary effort. Eormerly one frequently heard the work of Missions depreciated, jeered at, and the results put down at nil. That is in the main a thing of the past. Only where extreme ignorance prevails is such an attitude possible. But there are now many who frankly say that Missions are unnecessary, and some who demand that there shall be no more attempts to win converts, at least from the great religions. The opposition of educated non-Christians to Missions has probably become accentuated in recent years. It certainly has become much more articulate, and much more definite in its condemnation of missionaries. There is a loud

B i<S demand, at least in certain countries, that Missions should desist from making converts.

Now this attitude to Christianity, whether at home or on the Mission field, clearly implies a certain estimate of the position of Christianity with reference to other religions. When a man says that it is wrong to seek to persuade a Hindu, a Buddhist, or a Muhammadan to become a Christian, he must have some idea in his mind which limits the rights of ' the Christian faith in relation to those religions.

From this point of view, then, it is of the utmost consequence that Christians should realize and state frankly the relation of their religion to others. If we cannot justify Missions to the minds of thinking men, we must confess defeat ; and it is clear we cannot justify them in present circumstances without a clear exposition of the relation of Christianity to the religions of the world.

But, in order that our exposition may keep in close touch with facts, it will be well to realize first of all what the theories are which are put forward as reasons why the Christian Church should not seek to make converts. We begin with two which are so manifestly unsatisfactory as to be scarcely worthy of consideration ; yet, since they influence public opinion, it will be well to take a look at them.

{a) There are, first of all, those who urge that the differences ^between religions are superficial and of no consequence, that, when you look down into the depths of reality, you find that all men really believe the same things. This would reduce all religions to a dead level, and would make the attempt to think out the relationship between any pair of faiths altogether useless. There are comparatively few people who would subscribe to this bald statement ; yet it is sometimes urged. In one of her recent books Mrs. Bcsant states first the fundamental principles of Theosophy, and then proceeds :

Its secondary teachings are those which are the common teachings of all religions, living or dead : the Unity of God; the triplicity of His nature ; the descent of Spirit into matter, and hence the hierarchies of intelligencies, whereof humanity is one ; the growth of humanity by the unfoldment of consciousness and the evolution of bodies, i.e. reincarnation ; the progress of this growth under inviolable law, the law of causality, i.e. karma ; the environment to this growth, the three worlds, physical, astral, and mental, or earth, the intermediate world, and heaven; the existence of divine Teachers, superhuman men.'

Here we are told that all religions, living or dead, teach this long list of doctrines. What do anthropologists think of the claim that savage religions contain this great catalogue of ideas? What do Christians think of the assertion that Christianity teaches reincarnation ? What do Muhammadans think of the assertion that Islam teaches that God’s nature is triple? Clearly thinking men can only express their utter amazement that such baseless statements could ever be seriously made.

{b) The second group are both more reasonable and more numerous. They are quite ready to admit that religions differ very deeply in their doctrines, and also in their modes of worship, but they argue that, since religion is a practical thing, these differences do not matter. Even in the lowest religions each man knows that he ought to do his duty both by God and man. All religions seek the same God, consciously or unconsciously. Hence it is quite unnecessary to change any one’s religion. Frequently the thought is added that each man’s religion is the best thing for him. This idea was expressed by a Hindu ascetic named Ramakrishna Paramahamsa :

Every man should follow his own religion. A Christian should follow Christianity, a Mohammedan should follow Mohammedanism, and so on. For the Hindus the ancient path, the path of the Aryan Rishis, is the best.*

Clearly this statement has only to be looked at to be rejected. ' The Riddle of Life, pp. 1-2.

* Ramakrishna, 177. It is most interesting to realize that this was the attitude of Celsus, the second-century opponent of Christianity. ‘ Over and over Celsus maintains the duty of “living by the ancestral usages ”, “ each people worshipping its own traditional deities.’” — Glover, 254.

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Such a line of argument would justify the foulest religions on earth, systems which inculcate cannibalism, human sacrifice, promiscuity, incest, and every other abomination and cruelty.

(c) But serious people do not seriously believe that all religions are the same, or that it is wrong to try to make a cannibal a Christian. The truth is that these two statements are merely blundering attempts to put into universal form the instinctive feeling, present nowadays in thousands of minds, that the great religions of the world, Muhammadanism, Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism, are so noble, and produce such good results, that it is a shame to attack them and disturb those who profess them.

This is the foundation on which Theosophy has built itself. The theory is that all the great religions are reconciled in its ample bosom, that there is no longer any need for controversy or for propaganda, but that each faith may live its own life in love and harmony with its neighbours. Many people all over the world have been greatly attracted by this statement, and also by the summons of the Theosophical Society to join in forming a brotherhood of men. The teaching of the Society has been welcomed by many who were without definite religious belief of their own ; and in India, Burma, and Ceylon multitudes have acclaimed it as the means that is destined to re-establish the ancient religions.

But, though the programme of love and unity is a most attractive one, and though the summons to brotherhood and human seiwice is something which every Christian must rejoice to hear, yet Theosophy itself is no safe refuge for the present distress. So far from providing a means of reconciling the great religions. Theosophy creates another religious system. It is simply a new doctrine with a crude mythology. Mrs. Besant, who is President of the Theosophical Society, in her TJieosopIiy^ in Jack’s series, ‘The People’s Books,’ puts forward as the central doctrine of the system the statement.

that the community of religious teachings, ethics, stories, symbols, ceremonies, and even the traces of these among savages, arose from the derivation of all religions from a common centre, from a Brotherhood of Divine Men, which sent out one of its members into the world from time to time to found a new religion, containing the same essential verities as its predecessors, but varj'ing in form with the needs of the time, and with the capacities of the people to whom the Messenger was sent.

Christianity teaches that the Father sent the Son to be the Saviour of the world ; Muhammadanism teaches that Allah sent Muhammad as the final Prophet; Hinduism has its avataras, but they are no brotherhood of men, but are each an incarnation of the supreme Vishnu ; while Mahayana Buddhism also has its incarnations, but they come from the Supreme likewise. It is quite easy to say that Christ, Muhammad, Krishna, Gautama, and the rest are all members of the brotherhood, and that that reconciles the I'eligions. The reconciliation is effected by cutting the heart out of each, and substituting this new mythology. The truth is that, so far as their central theological ideas are concerned, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Muhammadanism, and Christianity stand much nearer to each other than they do to this new dogma. Certainly no sincere Christian, Jew, or Muhammadan can accept a system which detaches religion from God. It stands nearer Hinduism than any other faith ; yet many Hindus already protest loudly against the identification of their religion with the system ; and as time goes on its true nature will become clear to many who now trust in it. The great success of the propaganda in India is almost exclusively due to its defence of caste and idols. What sort of ‘ reconciliation ’, then, does it offer to Christians and Muhammadans ?