The conflicts of capital and labour historically and economically considered; being a history and review of the trade unions of Great Britain, showing their origin, progress, constitution, and objects in their political, social, economical, and industrial aspects

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I

. V

. 1

^^iS

I

I y

THE CONFLICTS

OF

I

I CAPITAL AND LABOUR

BISTOaiCALLY AND EC0S0SICAL17 CONSIDERED

HISTORY AND REVIEW OF THE TRADE UNIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN

THEIR ORICIN, PROGRESS, CONSTITUTION, AND OBJECTS

IN THEIR POLITICAL, SOCIAL, ECONOMICAL

AND INDUSTRIAL ASPECTS

GEORGE HOWELL

luaertf'ThtHandy-BKkeftluLiiinirl.

* Be just and fear not ' — Henry VIII. Act iii. scene 3

* Nothing extenuate, nor set down aught in malice' — Otkella, Act. v. scene s i TO

SAMUEL MORLEY, ESQ., M.F.

AS A LARGE EMPLOYER OF LABOUR, AND ONE WHO HAS AT ALL TIMES TAKEN THE DEEPEST INTEREST IN ALL QUESTIONS APPERTAINING TO THE WELFARE OF THE WORKING (R CLASSES, WHETHER AS REGARDS THEIR POLITI-

^ GAL FREEDOM, THEIR SOCIAL IMPROVEMENT,

i OR THEIR MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL

<r

PROGRESS, THIS VOLUME IS DEDI- CATED TO YOU WITH EVERY FEELING OF ESTEEM BY

THE A UTHOR.

Preface

In preparing the present work for the press the objects which I have endeavoured to keep steadily in view are threefold: — (i) To supply the fullest information with regard to the history, organisation, constitution, and working of trade-unions in all their multifarious details. (2) To furnish an authoritative exposition of the leading features of those unions, their chief characteristics, their aims and ends, and also the methods, or means by which they seek to attain them. (3) To give a trustworthy explanation of some of the alleged restrictive rules by which they are said to be governed, together with a refutation of many of the utterly wild theories and reckless statements regarding them, which too often find a place even in the writings of those who are more or less friendly to their general objects, but whose opinions are founded on inadequate information, supplied often by one side only, with r^ard to the nature of those unions, the rules by which they are governed, their management, and the scope of their action.

Numerous books have been published on special branches of those subjects which are treated of in this volume, but, as a rule, they have been written by men viii PREFACE.

who have had to obtain their information second hand, who have picked up a fact here and there, without being able to see their connection with other facts to them unknown, and who consequently have often mistaken some incidental feature for the main principle upon which these unions are based ; and, therefore, however v/ell intentioned the writers may have been, their works are incomplete as a description of the purposes of the union, or inaccurate as to the mode of conducting them ; the data being inexact, the conclusions drawn are necessarily unreliable.

This, however, does not apply to all the subjects here discussed, for some phases of the question have been trfeated with marked ability by competent writers, but the papers are mostly detached, they are scattered here and there, and are only to be found in highpriced journals, which, after they are once read, are too frequently thrown aside and forgotten. In the following pages many of these valuable fragments are laid under contribution, either by quotation or by condensation, so as to preserve their essence. There is also a large amount of trade-union literature in existence, in the form of pamphlets, tracts, speeches, reports, addresses, balance sheets, and much that is useful in the * special organs,* or class newspapers, which have from time to time been devoted to their interests ; all of these, as well as official reports and ' blue books,' hav6 been consulted by the present writer, in order that the work may be made as full and complete in itself as possible.

The first part of the work, viz., * Gilds,' has been

PREFACE. ix

treated in aiv exhaustive and able manner by Dr. Brentano, in his learned and outspoken essay, in five parts, prefixed to the valuable work on * English Gilds/ edited, with notes, by the late Mr. Toulmin Smith, and published

^ by the Early English Text Society. Many differences of opinion may be observed between the learned doctor of Bavaria and the able editor of the ' Ordinances of the Gilds ' ; it has been my endeavour to give such a concise and careful abstract of the history of these ancient precursors of the modem trade-unions as will present an accurate view of the main features of those highly interesting societies in Early Britain, and in the Middle Ages, when they were so fully developed and organised.

• The term ' Gild * is preserved as used by the English Text Society. Modern trade-unionism cannot be properly understood or rightly appreciated except by a careful study of their early prototypes, the English gilds. The whole of this part of my subject has been based on Dr. Brentano's essay, but I have compared his statements with the charters and ordinances given by Mr. Toulmin Smith, and with the notes and introduction by Miss Lucy Smith, which also differ in some respects from the views enunciated by Dr. Brentano ; this portion has been supplemented with further particulars from other sources.

The treatise which has attempted to deal with the modem phase of trade-unionism in its most complete form is 'The Trades' Unions of England,* by M. le Comte de Paris, edited by Mr. Thomas Hughes, Q.C., published in 1869. It is not altogether accurate, but it is a most creditable production, and especially when we

X PREFACE.

consider that it was written by a foreigner. There are a few quaint errors in the book, but the tone is good and wholesome throughout, very different from that found in other books written by some Englishmen.

The volume by Mr. Thomas Brassey, M.P., entitled * * Work and Wages,' deals only in a general sense with the question of trade-unions, but it contains much valuable matter, especially with regard to the cost of labour both at home and abroad, and he did good service to the working men of England by its publication, for which they cannot be too thankful.

The elaborate work 'On Labour,* by Mr. W. T. Thornton, is more ambitious ; it deserves careful study on account of the new aspects which he has presented of some of the doctrines of political economists ; but he has accepted and endorsed many exploded theories and statements in regard to trade-unions which a little further research would have shown him to be unfounded. Some of these are examined and exposed in various parts of the present work ; taken, however, as a whole, Mr. Thornton deserves great credit for his labours ; the tone of his book is healthy, vigorous, and, in so far as he saw the question, impartial.

The most valuable contributions to the literature of trade-unions are the papers contributed to the * Fortnightly Review * by Mr. Frederic Harrison ; they are marked by great ability, originality, and research, and have contributed not a little to the altered tone in the English press with regard to those institutions. Mr. J. M. Ludlow has also given valuable assistance towards the elucidation of many knotty points in the labour

PREFACE. xi

tontroversy by his articles in ' Macmillan's Magazine,* the ' Fortnightly Review/ and other papers, while in the little book entitled the ' Progress of the Working Classes/ the joint production of Mr. Ludlow and Mr. Lloyd Jones, there is a mass of useful and interesting facts and historical matter touching their social advancement not to be found elsewhere.

Many of the authorities consulted and freely used in the preparation of this volume, will be found in the Appendix ; this has been done to avoid constant repetition in the text, and the use of footnotes. It is hoped that this general acknowledgment will suffice.

The scope of the present work is sufficiently indicated by its title and the table of contents ; if any point of importance has been omitted, or inadequately explained, it is due to oversight, and not to any desire to ' slur over,* or keep in the background, any material issue, or to abridge anything which could throw a light on the several questions brought under review, or the principles involved in their discussion.

In presenting this work to the public the author is aware that there may be many deficiencies in matter and manner, but he has endeavoured to be impartial ; he has taken great care to be exact ; his object has been to give actual, ascertained, and well authenticated facts — these have sometimes been obtained with great difficulty, as a few of the unions do not indulge in publicity — he will be found supporting the workmen where he believes them to be right, and deciding £^ainst them when and where he thinks they have been in the wrong.

xii PREFACE.

In many parts of the book the sentiments expressed are oftentimes mere matters of opinion ; the conclusions arrived at may therefore be at variance with those held by the members of trade-unions, or they may differ from those held by the masters, at other times they may be opposed to both ; the divergence from the views of other writers on similar questions will be often still more apparent ; in all cases the only thing I can ask is for a candid verdict after a careful examination of the book as a whole.

Whatever may be said with regard to trade-unions, either as to their policy, their objects, or the means which they employ, one great fact cannot be ignored, namely, that they wield a vast power, socially and politically, and whether for good or for evil, it is daily increasing. They are, moreover, public institutions in Great Britain to-day, exercising great authority by reason of their extent, their wealth, their organisation, and the numbers within the pale of their influence, and they are as deeply rooted in the minds and affections of the working people as almost any institution in the country. It is useless to abuse them, to put them down is impossible ; the only sensible way of dealing with them has been done by legally enfranchising them ; they are now protected by law, as well as being amenable to the law, and their future action will show that this policy is as wise as it is just.

G. H.

March 1878.

Note. — Chapters V. and VII. are reprinted from the * Contemporary Review ' by the kind permission of Messrs. Strahan and Co.

Chapter I

GILDS, THEIR ORIGIN, ESSENCE, HISTORY, OBJECTS, PRINCIPLES, AND INFLUENCE.

PAGE

Part I. Frith Gilds:— %\, England, the birth-place of GUds of Scandinavian origin — §2. The family as the basis of all early communities — § 3. The family primarily responsible for offences and offenders — § 4. Kinship lost or merged in wider social relations— §5. Artificial alliances formed for further protection — §6. Growth of the * towns,* contests for civic rights — §7. The rise of * craftsmen * in the towns — § 8. The formation of Frith- Oilds — §9. The Frank-pledge recognised by law — §10. The principle of mutuality the basis of Gilds — § ii. Influence of Christianity on the early Gilds — § 12. Three oldest Gild statutes : 'Abbotsbury — § 13. Exeter — § 14. Cambridge — § 15. Charac- ^ teristic features of these Gilds — § 16. Records add documents referred to as authorities, &c i

Tart II. Religious and Social Gilds:— % 17. The origin of Religious Gilds — §18. Capitularies of Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims, 858 Gilds of the la3rmen — § 19. Gilds were common in the Middle Ages — § 20. Name of such Gilds, Religious or Social ? — § 21. Organisation and objects of these Gilds : (i) Religious exercises — § 22. (2) Christian charity — § 23. (3) Education — § 24. (4) Feasts of celebration — §25. (5) Representation of religious plays— §26. (6) Performance of secular plays and pastimes — §27. (7) Mutual benefit, and insurance — § 28. Regulations as to admission to the Gild — § 29. Gild liveries at feasts — § 30. Income of. Gilds — §31. Constitution of Gilds — §32. Membership of the Gild — § 33. Conduct of members — § 34. Meetings of members — § 35. Gilds of the clergy ; ordinances against misconduct ; admonitions as to the conduct of priests — § 36. Gilds of the Kalenders ; admission of laymen — §37. Major and minor Gilds— §38. The Reformation xiv CONTENTS,

PACK

and religious Gilds— § 39. Confiscation of the property of Gilds — §40. Dissolution of the colleges, Henry VIII., Edward VI. Object and extent of the * confiscation * — §41. Danish Gilds; partial revival of Gilds ; friendly societies an offshoot of the Gilds — §42. Evidence of analogy, Sir Frederick Eden — §43. Mr. J. M. Ludlow confirms this view . «... 9

Part III. Merchant Gilds and Town C7«^; — §44. Origin of Town-Gilds — § 45. Possession of land a condition of citizenship — §46. Merchants in England»§47. Gilds in France^ 48. Similar ones in Germany— §49. Murder of a Gild- brother avenged on a ^iiig— § 50. Growth of the Merchant Gild— § 51. The Patricians— §52. Contests for power — §53. English Gilds and the Aristocracy— §54. Gilds of London — §55. Union of Berwick Gilds — § 56. Continental Gilds more political— § 57. Danish Gilds — § 58. Condition of membership — § 59. Separation into classes — §60. Craftsmen excluded from merchant Gilds — § 61. Wholesale traders only — § 62. Monopoly of power, how used — § 63. Oppression of the poor— § 64. Resistance of the craftsmen — § 65. Persecution—§ 66. Victory of the craftsmen, how used — § 67. Transfer of power from the old burghers to the Craft-Gilds — § 68. Companies of London, origin of— § 69. The grocers' Lord Mayor — § 70. Recognition of the new power by the king — § 71. Effects of the struggle in England and on the Continent — § 72. Denmark — § 73. Effects of the Reformation ...... 19

Part IV. Craft-Gilds ;— § 74. Evidence of the early power of Crafl- Gilds— § 75. Population of the towns Xlth century ; divisions stated — § 76. Rise of the handicraftsmen as a class — § 77. The burghers or old freemen — § 78. The bondmen — § 79. Origin of Craft-Gilds — § 80. The causes which led to the establishment of Craft-Gilds— § 81. Constitution of Craft-Gilds— § 82. The first Craft-Gilds— the weavers— §83. Continental Craft-Gilds— §84. Rise and progress of the early Craft-Gilds — § 85, The organisation of Craft-GUds — § 86. Opposition of the old burghers to the Craft- Gilds — § 87. Contests for supremacy in the towns ; weavers — §88. Election of masters or wardens of the Gilds — §89. The triumph of the Craft-Gilds —§ 90. Industrial policy of the Craft- Gilds— §r9i. Policy of Craft-Gilds on the Continent— § 92. Objects and constitution of Craft-Gilds — §93. Periodical meetings and government of Craft-Gilds — § 94. The duties of wardens of the Craft-Gilds— § 95. Punishment of refractory members — Rattening— § 96. Every craftsman must belong to a Gild — § 97. Income of Gilds— § 98. Rules of the Gilds — §99. Right to trade or exercise the craft; apprenticeships — §100. Regulations as to tools,

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CONTENTS. XV

PAGB quality of work, &c. — § loi. Hours of labour, fasts, feasts, and holidays— § I02. Ruinous competition — § 103. Further regulations — § 104. Refusal to work with a non-member— § 105. Conduct of Gild brothers towards each other — § 106. Religious character of the Craft-Gilds — § 107. The union of craftsmen belonging to similar trades ; confederation — § 108. Relation between masters and joume3rmen — § 109. No actual working class as at present — § 1 10, Rise of capitalist class — § iii. Degeneracy of the Craft-Gilds set in — § 112. Ordinance requiring returns of the Gilds— § 113. The rise of the journeymen as a class — § 114. The plague, 1348-49 — § 115. Statute of Labourers, 23 Edward III., 1349 ; Statute of Labourers, 25 Edward III., 1351 ; Statute of Labourers, 12 Richard II., 1388 ; Statute of Labourers, 13 Richard II., 1390 ; Statute of Labourers, 7 Henry IV., 1406 — § 116. The r^ulation of wages and prices by statute — § 117. Organised efforts to raise wages ; clothworkers — §118. Building trades — §119. The rise of other journeymen fraternities ; prohibition by the city authorities — § 120. Protection decreed to the journeymen — § 121. Government of the Craft-Gilds, restrictive and protective — § 122. Degeneracy of the Gilds accelerated by capitalists' regulations — § 123. Legal enactments with the object of restricting their authority — § 124. Continental fraternities; Germany and France — § 125. Continental regulations — § 126. Transfer of power to the richer members — § 127. Opposition to the change — § 128. German Gilds; regulations— § 129. Black-lists and strikes — § 130. Origin and cause of disputes — § 131. Statutory regulations, Edward VI. c. 15. German code, 1577 — § 132. London apprentices — § 133. Origin of Trade- Unions traced to the Craft-Gilds — § 134. General condition of the workmen in the i6th and 17th centuries— § 135. Memorial of the printers ; case and proposals — § 136. The decay of the Craft-Gilds — §137. Appropriation of the Gild funds by the crown — § 138. Causesof the final overthrow of the Craft-Gilds — § 139. Their final extinction in France, Germany, and England .... 32

CHAPTER IL

TRADE-UNIONS — THEIR ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND DEVELOPMENT.

Part I. Their origin, successors of Gilds: — § it-^rade-Unions the successors of Gilds — § 4*»Evidence of similarity to the old Gilds— § ^Conditions under which they first arose — § 4C. Combinations in the building trades — § $«• Statute of apprentices, 5th of Elizabeth, c. 4. — §.6 Apprenticeships made con.pulsory — §7. Persons wl o might take ^apprentices — § 8. Limitation as to numbers —

XVI

CONTENTS,

PAGE

§9. Journeymen, period of hiring — § 10. Hours of labour — § ii. Wages to be assessed — § 12. 1st of James I. c. 6 — § 13. Results to the workmen — §14. Duty of magistrates — §15. Effects of restriction; interpretation of Act limited — §16. How Trade- Unions originated 79

Part II. Trades subject to the Statute ^tA of Elizabeth^ c, 4 : — § 17. Woollen manufactures ; early combinations ; earlier regulations, Edward VI. and Mary, 5th of Elizabeth, c. 4 ; report of committee of House of Commons 1757 — § i^r^ Combinations prohibited, 1 2th of George I. c. 34^" rate of wages fixed but not enforced — § i^r^evolt of the weavers, victory of the workmen — §20. Transition state of woollen trades — §21. Small masters and domestic industry ; system of apprenticeships universal— § 22. Practice in Yorkshire — § 23. Domestic manufacture — § 24. Apprentice, how taught ; working of the system ; regularity of employment — §25. Stagnation of trade and losses — §26. Amicable relations of masters and men — § 27. Cloth-halls the market for the sale of goods— §»r Introduction of machinery— § 29. Merchant clothiers — § ^or Division of labour — § 31. Growth of large capitalists ; growth of operative class — § 32. Apprenticeship system relaxed and discontinued — § 33. Employment of women and children — § 34. Apprenticeships as applied to masters relaxed and abolished — § 35. Formation of a trade-society ; institution at Halifax, objects of — § ^Ife^Combinations suppressed by 39 George III. c. 81 — § 37. Irregularity of employment ; fluctuations in trade and in wages — § 38. Deterioration of small masters — § 3^-^^rade societies formed under cloak of Friendly Societies — § 4^^ Chief object, the prosecution of masters ; petitions of masters, March 14, 1803, May 9, 1803, April 24, 1804 — § 41. Counter measures by small masters and workmen — § 42. 43 George III. c. 136 ; Suspension of laws — § 4^ Independent action of the workmen — §44. Institution formed in 1803 — §45grDbjects of the institution ; apprentices — § 46. No one to learn two trades at once ; further complaints — § 47. Provision in case of sickness or death— § 48. Contributions and management of the institution — § 49. Master manufacturers leave the institution ; attempts to suppress it — § 50. Workmen coerce the masters — § 51. Acts of intimidation by the workmen — § 52. Parliamentary committee, 1806 ; report—^ 53. Report favours the repeal of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4-— § 54. Shipwrights' Society— § 55. The Hatters* Society— § 56. The Tailors* Society . 82

Part III. Trades Incorporated by Charter: — § 57. Incorporated trades — Framework knitters ; apprentices — § 58. Petition of the men refused— § 59. Revolt of the men— § 60. Great distress

CONTENTS. xvii

PAGS among the workmen — § 6i. New bye-laws ordained~§ 62. Manufacturers refuse to obey — § 63. The company appeal to the workmen—- 64. The Stockingers' Trade Society— §65. Return a member to Parliament — § 66. Workmen petition P^liament ; committee appointed ; confirmatory evidence given ; motion lost— ^ 67. Workmen again petition Parliament — § 68. Evidence before the committee as to frame rents, &c. — § 69. Workmen buy the materials — §70. Distressed state of the workmen — 71. Bill introduced for regulation of the trade — § 72. Counter petitions by the employers ; another committee appointed — § 73. Fate of the Bill — § 74. Great rioting of the workmen ; masters' promises — § 75. Continued depression of the workmen — § 76. Another appeal to Parliament unsuccessful — § 77. The cutlers of Sheffield . . 97

Part IV. Trades not under legal restrictions^ &c. : — § 78. Calico-printers' apprentices ; evidence as to the conduct of employers — § 79. Deductions from wages — § 80. Effects on the work-people — §81. Calico-printers' Society ; rules and objects — §82. Appeal to Parliament — § 83. Committee appointed, 1802 ; report — § 84. Bill of Mr. Sheridan thrown out— § 85. The Cotton Traders— §86. The silk trades; report, 1818— § 87. Spitalfields Acts, 13 George III. c. 68, 32 George III. c. 44, 51 George III. c. 7. —§88. Price lists formed— § 89. The 'Good Intent' Society formed — § 90. Employers' Society — § 91. Effects of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4 — § 92. Another Parliamentary inquiry, 181 3 — § 93. Repeal of the Statute of Apprentices by 54 George III. c. 96— §94. Effects of the repeal of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4. — §95. Further petitions — § 96. The opinions of Mr. Pitt as to the condition of the workpeople— § 97. The growth of combination — § 98. Combination laws — § 99. Secret combinations — § 100. Effects of the combination laws; riots and injury to property — §101. Outrages, 1819 to 1823 106

Part V, The growth of Trade-Unions during the present century : — § 102. Position of the workmen under the. new sj^tem — § 103. Growth of the Factory system, its effects — § 104. Objects of the early unions — §105. Origin of the combination laws — §106. Early organisations crude and imperfect — § 107. Statement lists and arbitration — § 108. Statute of 40 George III. c. 106 to suppress combinations of workmen— § 109. Prosecutions of workmen — §110. Conduct of the workmen under persecution — §iii. Parliamentary inquiry, 1824 — § 112. Report of the committee— § 113. 5 George IV. c. 95, 1824— § 114. Object and policy of the statute — § 11$. Spread of combination ; new inquiry 1825 — § 116. \ Fresh legislation, object and extent — § 117. 6 George IV. c 129

a i xviii CONTENTS.

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— § 1 1 8. Legislature of 1825 — § 119. Condemnation of 6 George IV. by W. Nassau Senior— § 120. Protests of the workmen, 1834 ; Dorchester labourers-^ 121. Strikes, 1829 to 1837 — § 122. Parliamentary inquiry, 1838 — § 123. Abstract of evidence — § 124, Progress of the Unions, 1834 to 1842 — § 125. Inauguration of the National Association of United Trades, 1845 — § 126. Prosecution for conspiracy, &c. — § 127. Great strikes. Engineers, 1852; Preston operatives, 1853-4 ; Tin-plate workers, 1855 ; Friendly Societies* Acts, 1854 — §128. Parliamentary inquiry, 1856— §129. Builders' strike and lock-out, 1859 — § 130. Allegations of t3rranny and outrage against the unions — §131. Select committee, 1865 ; Contract of service and of hiring — § 132. Royal commission, 1867-8-9, to inquire into organisation and rules of trade societies, &c. — § 133. Result of the inquiry. Act of 1871 ; development of the unions during the last twenty years — §134. Lessons conveyed by the history of labour struggles I16

CHAPTER IIL

TRADE-UNIONS, THEIR CONSTITUTION, NATURE, OBJECTS,

AND EXTENT.

I. Definition of a Trade- Union ; objects of Trade-Unions ; doctrine of the restraint of trade — § 2. The right of combination — § 3, Trade- Unions voluntary associations — § 4. Its voluntary principle should not be impugned — § 5. The right of the workman to fix the price of his own labour — § 6. The right of employers to fix the price they will pay — § 7. Workmen weak in isolation — § 8. The value of combination — § 9. Opponents of combination^^ § 10. Effects of restrictive legislation-^ 11. The true basis of combination ; ' Reign of Law ; ' spirit of association ; its operation as a special force ; the limit of its power — § 12. The basis of Trade-Unions ; constitution — § 13. Trade benefits and friendly benefits — § 14. Table of contribution and benefits — § 15. Out of work fund — § 16. Drunkenness or other misconduct — § 17. Assistance in cases of distress — § 18. In aid of the rates^ 19. Amounts paid during 1875-^; since 1867; since 185 1— §20. Effects of out of work benefit on the workmen — § 21. Out of work fund confounded with strike pay — §22. Travelling relief, or tramp money — §23. Strike pay — §24. When strike pay is allowed — §25. Strike allowance; amounts paid — §26. Steps to be taken before a strike can take place — § 27. Local privileges — § 28. Amounts spent in strikes — § 29. Arbitrary action of the unions — §30, Formation of a Trade- Union— §31. Working rules

CONTENTS. xix

PAGB

— §32. Bye-kws— § 33. Constitution of the union — §34. General unions — § 35. Table showing extent, wealth, and power of the tinions~§36. Further statistics of general unions; miners; agricultural labourers; [railway servants, &c. &c. — §37. Local unions — § 38. Trade-Unions essentially an English institution — § 39. Grants of money to other trades— § 40. Trade- Unions non-political and non-sectarian — §41. Exceptions; reform movements ; reform league — § 42. County franchise—! 43. Merchant seamen — § 44. Growing tendency towards political action — § 45. Trade-Unions social and industrial — §46. Organisation and government of Trade-Unions ; qualification of members ; election of members ; method of election ; proposal of members ; procedure at elections ; personal assent to the rules— §47. Initiation of new members — §48. Government of the union — §49. Committee of management — §50. Officers of Trade- Unions — §51. Funds of Trade-Unions— § 52. Funds; recent protection of; Russell Gumey*s Act 31 and 32 Vict. c. n6 ; Trade-Uwion Acts, 1 87 1 and 1876 — § 53. Books and accounts, audit of; (i) branch accounts ; (2) general accounts ; trustees ; prosecutors in case of embezzlement ^54. Salaries of officials — §55. Table of salaries in some of the largest unions — § 56. General cost of management ; rent of offices and of rooms for branch meetings — § 57. Cost of printing and postage — §58. Delegations — §59. Investment of fimds— §60. Employment of the funds — §61. Public and social effects of Trade- Unions ; (i) discipline ; (2) systematic force ; (3) social restraints ; (4) inculcate thrift ; (5) encourage emulation ; (6) educational influence — § 62. Scope of their influence 147

CHAPTER IV.

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND TRADE-UNIONS.

1 1. Political economy; its fundamental principles challenged — §2. Christianity v. Political Economy—! 3. Doctrine with regard to a science of production— § 4. The theories of political economists subject to change — § 5. The assumptions of political economists disastrous in their consequences— § 6. The scope and meaning of political economy— §7. Definition of the science and its object — §8. The questions which the science embraces— §9. The nature of wealth and the laws of production—! 10. Definition of wealth not settled—! 1 1. Economical sources of wealth— § 12. Nature the source of all wealth— § 13. Labour the agent m the production ^ 14. In what consists the wealth of a country— § 15. Capital