Composition and rhetoric

Front matter

Jill. 1).\\\.\ OF A XKW LIFE After I he painting by Thomas Shields Clark

COLORADO MILITARY SCHOOL UNIVEfiSixY PARK

BY

Preface

This book aims throughout to promote self-cultivation in correct and effective speech and writing. Better English for immediate use, rather than the futile attempt to "develop writers," is its goal.

The capacity, the needs, and the interests of the average student have at all times been considered in the preparation of the text. The specimens of composition, selected from both standard and contemporary writers, have been chosen for their attractiveness to modern students as well as for their illustrative aptness. The subjects suggested for oral and written composition afford boys and girls, country-bred and city-bred, opportunity to use material familiar to them through everyday observation and experience. Numerous exerciser ia oral narration and exposition, frequent assignments -' jtter-writing, and definite practice in the writing required of students in other school subjects,— note-taking, translating from foreign languages, and the writing of reports and examination papers, — all furnish specific motivation for the study of composition and render the instruction immediately usable. The twenty-one full-page illustrations, which are made the basis of a number of exercises, include a rather wide range of subjects that appeal to the present generation of boys and girls.

Besides the usual equipment found in the average manual of composition, the present book contains a large amount of important supplementary material commonly available only in handbooks. This additional material enhances the value of the book for purposes of recitation assignment and makes it useful for frequent reference after it has been completed as a class text.

iv COMrOSITTON AND RHETORIC

Though the arrangement of the first three parts indicates the relative order in which each topic may be profitably taken up, the entire book is readily adaptable to a variety of conditions and special needs as well as to the particular pedagogical ideas of the individual teacher.

Part One consists of an introduction to oral and written expression. Practice in oral composition and in the retelling of another person's thought constitutes a natural approach to the writing of original compositions. Detailed instructions and well-planned exercises in the proper choice of a subject, the selection and orderly arrangement of material, the making of a simple outline and its logical development, and the thorough revision and careful rewriting of each composition furnish the student necessary guidance in his efforts at original expression. Letter-writing affords valuable practice in the most natural and familiar type of written composition.

Part Two deals with the units of composition : the paragraph, the sentence, and the word. The writing of paragraph compositions provides considerable drill in paragraph development. The four chapters devoted to the sentence include a more extensive treatment of sentence structure than is to be found in most textbooks of composition. Punctuation and grammar as they function in sentence construction are treated in a practical way. The chapter on cautions in grammar and sentence structure supplies the student with the means of correcting many faults in his everyday speech and writing. The four chapters devoted to diction will help him to overcome errors in his diction and will arouse in him an interest in word study.

Part Three contains a concise discussion of the four forms of prose discourse. As many illustrative selections are included as space permits. Though formal argument receives its share of attention, greater imphasis is placed on oral debating and free informal discussion. In each of the first four chapters in this

PREFACE V

section there are appropriate exercises in letter-writing. A special chapter on the short story is added to the discussion of narration.

Part Four is intended for frequent reference by the student, though each chapter may be profitably assigned for close, systematic study. The brief grammatical review supplements the chapters in Part Two dealing with sentence structure. Exercises in Chapters VIII and IX may be utilized for drill in parsing and in sentence analysis. The final chapter, containing the principal rules of spelling, a list of the common prefixes and suffixes, and more than six hundred words that are often misspelled, will have decided value for a majority of students.

The material included in the six sections of the Appendix will contribute appreciably to the student's equipment both in the study of literary selections and in writing.

From twelve years of experience in the teaching of English, and from association and discussions with progressive teachers in many schools, the author has evolved the plan of organization and derived a great amount of the material for the present book. As a teacher in the high schools of Texas, and later as instructor of a large number of freshman students in one of the state normal schools and in the University of Texas, the author had opportunity to observe closely the product of the high school and to study from both points of view the problem of compositionteaching.

For most valuable aid in the preparation of this book the author desires to acknowledge his special indebtedness to the authors of Lockwood and Emerson's "Composition and Rhetoric," by whose kind permission he has freely embodied in his text methods and material made familiar by a long acquaintance witn that excellent book, which in its own day was probably the best in its field. If in the making of this textbook to meet present conditions and supply modern teaching needs the author has vi COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC

succeeded in catching something of the spirit of practical helpfulness to pupil and to teacher that characterized that book of an earlier period, his greatest desire will have been realized.

To the following persons grateful acknowledgment is made for their assistance in the preparation of this book : to Mr. Frank W. Cushwa, of Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire, and to ]\Ir. A. B. De Mille, formerly of Milton Academy, Milton, IMassachusetts, for a thorough reading of the manuscript and for many helpful suggestions ; to ]\Iiss Caroline M. Doonan, of the Newton Technical High School, for valuable criticism of the proofsheets as the book was going through the press.

The selections from Hawthorne are used through the courtesy of Houghton Mifflin Company. The frontispiece, ^^The Dawn of a New Life," is reproduced, by permission, from the original painting, which hangs in the Berkshire Athenaeum and Museum, Pittsfield, Massachusetts. The two student letters in Chapter VI (pp. 1 1 7-1 19) are reprinted by permission of the Committee on English of the Newton Public Schools, Newton, Massachusetts. The right to use other selections and illustrations has been duly acknowledged where the material appears in the text.

To the members of the editorial staff of Ginn and Company and to the members of the Athenaeum Press it is impossible to express adequately the author's indebtedness and his sincere appreciation of their inestimable service and splendid cooperation in the production of this book.

CONTENTS PART ONE

PAGE

CHAPTER I. THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION i

Composition defined, i. Kinds of composition, 2. Essentials of effective composition, 2, Reasons for studying composition, 3. The mastery of English as a tool, 5, Self-cultivation in English, 6.

Chapter II. Or\l Composition

Importance of oral composition, 8. Knowledge of the subject, 10. Clearness of thought, 14. The value of an outhne in planning a composition, 16. Clearness of speech, 22. Correctness of speech, 24. Vividness of speech, 26. Two devices for keeping attention, 28.

Chapter III. Written Composition: Reproduction. . 32

Oral and written composition, 32. The proper form for written composition, 33. Requirements of learning to write, 36. The value of conscious imitation and emulation, 37. Self-cultivation in English through reproduction, 41. Retelling closely, 42. Translation a valuable means of retelling closely, 49. Retelling by condensing, 51. Taking notes on what we read, 53. Taking notes on what we hear, 55. Writing examination papers, 60. Retelling by expanding, 62.

Chapter IV. Planning An Original Composition ... 67

Approach to original composition, 67. Requirements of a good composition, 68. Choice and limitation of the subject, 68. Choice of the title, 69. Point of view, 70. Selection of material, 72. Arranging the material by means of an outline, 74. The law of unity, 74. The law of coherence, 75. The law of emphasis, 78. The form of an outline, 79.

Chapter V. Writing An Original Composition ... 86

Developing the outline into a composition, 86. The beginning of a composition, 91. The ending of a composition, 92. Transitions from paragraph to paragraph, 94. Revising a composition before it is submitted, 95. Rewriting a corrected composition, 97.

vii viii COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC

PAGE

Chapter VI. Letter-writing 104

Importance of letter-writing, 104. General form of letters, 104. Parts of a letter, 106. Qualities of the friendly letter, iii. Informal notes, 120. Formal notes, 122. The business letter, 124. Qualities , of the business letter, 126.

Chapter VII. The Paragraph 131

Definition of the paragraph, 131. Length of the paragraph, 132. Unity in the paragraph, 133. The topic sentence, 133. Position of the topic sentence, 133. Coherence in the paragraph, 140. Methods of paragraph development, 140: (i) By repetition, 140. (2) By details, 141. (3) By definition, 143. (4) By specific examples, 144. (5) By comparison and contrast, 144. (6) By supporting the topic statement with reasons, 146. Connecting words and phrases, 150. Emphasis in the paragraph, 152. Transitional paragraphs, 155.

Chapter VIII. The Sentence Grammatically Consid- Ered 159

Nature and purpose of the sentence, 159. The simple sentence, 159. Phrases, 160. The compound sentence, 165. The complex sentence, 170. Noun clauses, 171. Adjective clauses, 173. Adverbial clauses, 174. The compound-complex sentence, 180. Kinds of sentences according to use, 181. Phrases and dependent clauses incorrectly used as sentences, 182.

Chapter IX. The Sentence Rhetorically Consid- Ered 186

Kinds of sentences, 186. Effect of different kinds of sentences, 187. Unity in the sentence, 190. Coherence in the sentence, 195. Emphasis in the sentence, 201. Euphony in the sentence, 204.

Chapter X. Punctuation 211

Requirements of accurate punctuation, 211. General directions for punctuation, 212. The comma, 212. The semicolon, 221. The colon, 224. The period, 226. The question mark, 229. The exclamation mark, 229. The dash, 230. Parentheses, 233. Brackets, 234. Quotation marls, 235. The apostrophe, 238. The hyphen, 239. The caret, 239. Points and asterisks, 239. Italics, 239. Capital letters, 241.

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

Chapter XI. Special Cautions In Grammar And Sen- Tence Structure 248

Agreement of subject and predicate, 249. Nouns and pronouns, 253. Case, 253. Number, 255. Agreement of relative pronouns, 256. Reference of pronouns, 256. Adjectives and adverbs, 259. Expressions of comparison, 259. Adjectives and adverbs not to be confused in use, 260. Verbs, 263. Principal parts of difficult verbs, 263. Six troublesome verbs, 264. Uses of shall and will, should and would, 266. Additional cautions regarding tense, 271. Uses of the subjunctive mood, 273. Reference of participles, 274. Reference of verbal nouns, 275. Reference of infinitives, 276. Prepositions and conjunctions, 277. Improper omission of words, 278. Double subjects and double objects, 281. Double negatives, 281. When and where clauses wrongly used, 281. Because clause wrongly used, 282. The period fault, 282. The comma fault, 283. Faulty coordination in compound sentences, 285. Parallel construction, 287. Shift in point of view, 288.

CHAPTER XII. THE CORRECT USE OF WORDS 29a

The English language and its sources, 292. Diction, 293. Good use, 294. Violations of good use, 294. Barbarisms, 294. Solecisms, 295. Improprieties, 296. Slang, 296. Obsolete and archaic words, 297. Technical words, 297. A list of common errors in diction, 298.

Chapter XIII. The Effective Use Of Words 316

Effectiveness of diction, 316. Exactness, 316. Appropriateness, 317. Expressiveness, 319. The suggestive value of figures of speech, 320. Violations of effectiveness, 327, Needless repetition, 327. Exaggeration, 328. Trite expressions, 328. Hackneyed quotations, 329. Overuse of figurative language, 329. "Fine writing," 330.

Chapter XIV. The Importance Of A Large Vocab- Ulary 333

Poverty in words and thoughts, 333. Anglo-Saxon words, 333. Classical words, 334. Idioms, 334. Synonyms and antonyms, 335. How to acquire a large vocabulary, 336.

Chapter XV. The Use Of The Dictionary 339

Importance of the study of the dictionary, 339. Unabridged and abridged dictionaries, 339. Arrangement of an unabridged dictionary, 340. Information about words, 341.

X COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC

Part Three Page

CHAPTER XVT. SIMPLE NARRATION 34S

Simple narration defined, 345. The three essentials, 345. Unity in simple narration, 348. Coherence in simple narration, 350. Emphasis in simple narration, 350. Oral narration, 351. Anecdotes, 353. Tales, 355. News stories, 356. Letters, 359. Diaries, 36c. Biographies, 360. Autobiographies, 361. Travel sketches, 362.

CHAPTER XVIL DESCRIPTION 365

Description defined, 365. Expository description, 365. Artistic description, 366. Unity in description, 366. Point of view, 367. Singleness of impression, 368. The fundamental image, 370. Coherence in description, 370. Ejnphasis in description, 371. Vividness in description, 371. How to describe a place, 375. How to describe an object, 378. How to describe an animal, 380. How to describe a person, 382. Description by effect, 385. Principal aids in writing description, 386.

CHAPTER XVIII. EXPOSITION 388

Exposition defined, 388. The importance of clearness, 388. Oral exposition, 389. Methods of exposition, 390, Definitions, 390. Explanations of processes, 394. Discussions of facts and ideas, 397. Essays, 400. Expository biography, 405. Reviews and criticisms, 407. Newspaper editorials, 410. Expository letters, 413.

CHAPTER XIX. ARGUMENT AND DEBATING 41S

Argument defined, 415. Conviction and persuasion, 416. Informal argument, 417. Formal argument, 421. The value of debating, 421. Subjects for debate, 421. Wording the question, 422. Exposition of the question, 423. Definition of terms, 423. Conflict of opinion, 424. Proof, 425. Refutation, 426. Burden of proof, 426. The brief, 427. Developing the brief into an argument, 431.

CHAPTER XX. THE SHORT STORY

The short story defined, 434. Characteristics of the short story, 434 Essentials of the short story, 435. Singleness of impression, 442 Plot, 443. Dominant incident, 445. Characters, 446. The complication and its resolution, 446. Setting, 447. Point of view, 447 Where to begin a short story, 448. How to begin a short story, 448 The title, 449. Aids in writing a short story, 449. Sources of short stories, 451.

CONTENTS xi

Part Four Page

CHAPTER XXI. A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 457

Nouns, 457. Pronouns, 462. Adjectives, 466. Adverbs, 470. Verbs, 471. Prepositions, 483. Conjunctions, 484. Interjections, 485. Sentence analysis, 485.

CHAPTER XXII. SPELLING 487

Importance of learning to spell correctly, 487. Rules for spelling, 487. Helps in learning to spell, 490. Syllabication, 491. Prefixes and suffixes, 492. Spelling-list, 494. Words frequently confused, 498. Proper names frequently misspelled, 500.

APPENDIX A. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDYING THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF LITERATURE i

APPENDIX B. SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A SCHOOL LIBRARY viii

APPENDIX C. VERSIFICATION xv

APPENDIX D. A LIST OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS . . . xx\'

APPENDIX E. MARKS USED IN CORRECTING COMPOSITIONS xxviii

APPENDIX F. MARKS USED IN PROOFREADING xxx

INDEX xxxiii

LIST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Robinson Crusoe opens the Chest 26

The Fight in the Rigging 54

A Marble Tournament 72

Putting the Shot q4

Camping in Colorado 116

A City Market 146

The Sagebrush of Idaho 172

Man's Conquest over Nature igS

Harvesting Ice 258

Flotsam Castle 296

The Skyscrapers 324

The Pirate 348

A May-Day Frolic 360

Yosemite Falls 370

The Village Censor 382

The Lights of Industry 402

Thrift and Prosperity 424

Strolling Players 448

The End of the Trail 476

XIU

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC PART ONE

Chapter I The Study Of Composition

1. Introduction. As we enter upon the study of composition we may ask: What is composition? Why should I study it? How can I master it? To give preliminary answers to these questions is the purpose of the present chapter. To provide a practical treatment of these and other related questions is the function of the remainder of the book.

2. Composition defined. Whenever we communicate with other persons, either by speech or by writing, we are composing; that is, we are putting together thoughts so selected and arranged as to convey our meaning. Expression by means of speech is termed oral composition. Expression by means of writing is termed written composition. In order to express ourselves clearly and well, we should learn to exercise care in the choice and arrangement of our thoughts and acquire skill in the use of words and in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, and whole compositions.

Composition, like any other art, is governed by established rules and principles. These have been discovered through practice by generations of speakers and writers before us. For our convenience and profit they have been brought together and clearly stated as the rules of grammar and the principles of rhetoric. Grammar is the science that deals with the forms and the constructions of words. Rhetoric consists of the study of the principles governing the clear, forceful, and elegant expression of thoughts. Composition, therefore, is the expression of what we have to say in accordance with the rules of grammar and the principles of rhetoric.

3. Units of composition. The whole composition, which is the largest unit of expression, is made up of three subordinate units; namely, the paragraph, the sentence, and the word. These four units will be fully discussed and illustrated in later chapters.

4. Kinds of composition. According to our purpose as speakers and writers, we may make our composition (i) narration, (2) description, (3) exposition, or (4) argument. By means of narration we seek to entertain our hearers or readers by recounting an experience, relating an incident, or retelling a story. By the use of description we attempt to represent vividly for them a scene, an object, a person, a mood, or an impression that has interested us. By means of exposition we endeavor to explain something to them. By employing argument we try to lead them to believe as we do and to act as we desire them to act.

5. Sources of material for compositions. Though the subjects on which we may speak and write are infinite, we derive these subjects, and the material for developing them, from a relatively small number of sources. The most common of these sources are personal experience, observation, conversation, lectures, and reading.

6. Essentials of effective composition. Before we can make a subject interesting to others we must understand it thoroughly ourselves and must learn how to present it clearly and effectively. The manner of expressing our thoughts is next in importance to the thoughts themselves. As speakers and writ-

THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION 3

ers we should constantly endeavor to make it easy for others to understand what we have to say. This we can learn to do by conforming to the three essentials of effective composition; namely, clear thinking, adequate expression, and good form.

Few of us are endowed by nature with the ability to think clearly. This ability we may acquire, however, by limiting ourselves to definite subjects which we are capable of handling ; by forcing ourselves to decide what it is we wish to say about the subject and for what purpose we are going to say it ; and by persistent care in making our words express exactly what we mean.

Adequate expression requires that our composition be properly adjusted to the subject and carefully adapted to the interest and understanding of our hearers and readers. Out of all the possible ways we may think of and experiment with in expressing our thoughts we should try to discover the one most effective way. Only by doing this can we attain to adequate expression.

Good form in composition is at all times essential. We should therefore make conformity to the following requirements habitual :

1. Effective oral delivery.

2. Proper arrangement of manuscript.

3. Strict observance of the rules of grammar.

4. Care in the choice of words and in the use of idioms.

5. Correct spelling.

6. Intelligent punctuation.

Violations of these requirements hinder hearers and readers in their attempt to get a clear understanding of our thoughts, and for this reason greatly detract from our efforts at clear thinking and adequate expression.

7. Reasons for studying composition. The ability to think and to convey his thoughts through speech to others of his kind distinguishes man from the lower animals. The ability to think accurately and to express his thoughts clearly and permanently distinguishes the educated man, who leads, from the uneducated man, who must be led. During our school life the mastery of the English language is of immediate importance, for our progress in every other subject is dependent on our command of English. In later life this mastery will prove of even greater importance in promoting our success and happiness.

Perhaps in other days a man who was too indolent to give attention to his writing might have avoided the necessity; crude expression might have served him. But today, under the influence of our quickened civilization, a man can scarcely hope to become an important factor in society unless he can express himself with some degree of adequacy. People will not stop to listen to him if he cannot explain his wants clearly and without unnecessary hesitation ; and they will not do what he desires if he cannot convince them and move them to action. And if a man is unable to use his mother tongue accurately, he not only turns many away from him day by day because of his obvious habits of carelessness, but when the supreme opportunity comes, he is, through his lack of power, unable to reach a large part of his audience of readers. Unless he is content to be a third-rate lawyer, minister, business man, or scientist, and is willing to be forever classed as uneducated, he must be able to increase the value of his thoughts by expressing them skillfully.^

Interested, intelligent study of composition will enable us to develop greater skill in speaking and in writing. Some of us may discover that we have thoughts to which we desire to give literary expression. This desire we may ultimately accomplish if we first train ourselves in the clear, accurate, and forceful expression of the thoughts we now have. Our immediate aim in studying composition should be the mastery of English as a necessary tool.

^From "The Art of Writing English," copyrighted, 1913, by R. W. Brown and N. W. Barnes. Used by permission of the American Book Company, publishers.

THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION ^

8. The mastery of English as a tool. Every person who attains success either as an artist or as an artisan must first of all become the master of his tools or instruments. He must acquire such skill in their use that he can do with them exactly what he desires to do. Every user of the English language who attains success as a speaker or a writer must first of all become the master of his language, the tool or instrument of communication. He must acquire such skill in its use that he can say accurately and effectively what he desires to say.

If we allow our present inability to speak and write well to discourage us so that we make no effort to master our language, we shall condemn ourselves to a life of commonplaceness and inefficiency. Similarly, if we envy successful speakers and writers their mastery of English but content ourselves merely with dreaming of the time when we too, through some magical gift, shall possess an equal mastery, we shall never realize our dream. Mastery of English does not come in that way. It must be won through persistent, well-directed eftort.

In our efforts to gain greater skill in expression we have many valuable aids. Sympathetic teachers and good textbooks will furnish us guidance. Association with the best speakers and writers will stimulate and inspire us. By improving our speech we shall acquire accuracy and readiness of utterance and increase our power over words. By listening to good speakers and by reading widely we shall add to our general information as well as to our knowledge of the correct methods of speaking and writing. Through frequent systematic composition we shall gain indispensable practice in clear thinking and in the accurate expression of our thoughts. Sir Francis Bacon, a man who rose to great political power and literary eminence because of his mastery of English, emphasized the importance of reading, speaking, and writing. "Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man."

9. Self-cultivation in English. The mastery of English as a tool cannot be taught ; it must be learned. That is to say, we must acquire it through self-cultivation. Others may advise and encourage us, but they cannot give us command of our language. It is our task, as well as our privilege, to obtain it by our own endeavor.

Early in our school career we should develop a real interest and pride in our speech and writing. We should learn increasingly to be our own guides and critics. A thorough knowledge of the principles of composition and the rules of grammar will enable us to overcome the habits of careless and incorrect expression into which we have fallen. We should constantly watch our everyday speech and should take advantage of every opportunity that we have for learning to write. Conversation and the writing of letters and school exercises afford us daily practice in composition. In all our efforts at self-cultivation we shall find the companionship of the best speakers and writers a most valuable stimulus to improvement.

Devote at least two hours to becoming acquainted with this textbook. First, examine the table of contents. Notice the plan of arrangement by parts and by chapters. Next, turn slowly through the book, pausing to study the pictures and to read whereever you become interested. Try to get a general idea of what each chapter contains. Notice particularly the chapters dealing with sentence structure, grammar, words, spelling, and punctuation. These you will find valuable for close study as well as for frequent reference. Though you will be assigned particular topics and sections as your teacher may see fit, remember that the entire book is yours, to be used as you need it. Begin self-cultivation in English at once. Try to discover for yourself the means for improving your speech and your writing.

THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION 7

II

Come to class prepared to answer the following questions: Do you find the pictures in this book interesting ? Which do you consider most interesting ? Why ? Which chapters do you think will be of most value to you in your study of composition? Why ?

Ill

Read carefully George Herbert Palmer's ^^Self-Cultivation in English" (Riverside Literature Series, No. 249). Come to class prepared to discuss the five precepts that the author gives and to answer any other questions that your teacher may ask you about the essay.

Chapter II Oral Composition!

10. Importance of oral composition. If we desire to speak and write well, we should watch our everyday conversation. In this most of us are careless. We are content to express or suggest a fraction of a thought, and then, with the pitiable acknowledgment of our laziness ^'Oh, you know what I mean," we leave our friends to guess the rest. The result is that when occasions arise on which we wish to express ourselves well, we often fail to make ourselves understood or to get what we want, because we cannot say what we mean. We make a personal or written application for a desirable position, but fail to secure it for the reason that we are unable to set forth our qualifications adequately. We misdirect a friend from one place to another, not because we do not know the way but because we cannot express ourselves accurately. We may often make an unsatisfactory recitation in history, science, mathematics, or literature, not because we have failed to prepare the assignment but frequently because we cannot state clearly and in order what we have learned. Only by daily practice in speaking correctly can we make the expression of our thoughts accurate and clear. In this endeavor we should enlist the aid of our family and friends. Perhaps we may be able to help them in return.

11. General directions for practice in oral composition. Oral composition includes both informal and formal expression.

1 At the discretion of the teacher certain parts of this chapter may be takea up in later assignments.

Almost all conversation is informal and spontaneous utterance which reveals the personality of the speaker. In familiar conversation we make free use of incomplete sentences, and of colloquial expressions such as Vll, you're, can't, and donH, which are not permissible in formal composition, either oral or written. But the informality of conversation does not warrant our making mistakes in grammar or in the choice of words, or otherwise violating good form in speaking. We should therefore, first of all, concentrate our attention upoi* the definite improvement of our everyday speech. Correct speech, we should bear in mind, lays the foundation for good writing.

Outside of your home you cannot find a better place to practice oral composition than the classroom and the school auditorium; nor shall you ever have a better audience than your classmates. Make every recitation in each subject, and every opportunity that you have of speaking before your classmates, an occasion for improvement.

When you talk, you should stand in the front of the room, facing the class. Remember that the effectiveness of what you have to say will depend in large part on your manner and bearing while you say it. You should therefore stand erect, hold your head up, and speak directly to your audience, instead of looking at the floor or out of the window. You should, furthermore, try to speak slowly, distinctly, and pleasantly, avoiding the quick, jerky speech which no one enjoys hearing. If necessary, you may refer occasionally to your brief outline, which you will find useful in helping you to select and arrange your material properly; but you should not, while speaking, depend on it too much. After you have taken your seat, the teacher and your classmates may offer criticisms on your talk. Suggestive questions for your guidance in preparing and criticizing these talks will be found with each general exercise.

10 COMrOSITION AND RHETORIC

12. The first necessary quality : knowledge of the subject. In the preparation of an oral composition our first concern should be the selection of a topic, or subject, that we fully understand and that we are capable of presenting interestingly to others in the time that we are given. Topics of this character we shall be able to secure from such sources as the following :