Composition from models : for use in schools and colleges

Front matter

c

CX LIBRIS

UNIVERSITATIS

Preface

This volume is intended to give skill in composition rather than rhetorical or grammatical acumen. The valuable books on the subject of composition and rhetoric, already existing, rather enable the beginner to criticise what has been written, than to write. Their help is generally least available at that very stage when it is most needed,— when the student is vaguely feeling after thought and expression. He requires hints as to what has been, or may be, said on the subject in hand, and as to the form in which his thoughts are to be cast. This initial inertia must always remain a difficulty, but it is hoped that this treatise may do something to overcome it.

The practical aim of the work has determined its form. The sub-divisions are neither logical nor exhaustive ; they have been selected as suggestive of available topics, and as covering the commonest and most conspicuous themes of actual literature. The models quoted and the subjects suggested are very numerous, in order that, in a study where stimulus is so essential, every sort of mind may discover something to suit its peculiar tastes and aptitudes. It is not, therefore, contemplated that any student should be taken consecutively through the book. Here is abundant material ; the judicious teacher will employ it as he sees it best fitted for the capacities of his pupils. It may, however, be said that the three parts of the book represent three stages of difficulty. In Narration, the models are mostly simple, and the attention of the student is directed mainly to the broad outlines of the composition. In Description, where actual literature is apt to be more elaborate, the analyses are usually fuller, and attention is frequently drawn to the iv

PREFACE.

more minute characteristics of structure and style. In Exposition, while some simple models are introduced, a number of extracts are to be found of greater length than those in the earlier divisions, and requiring riper mental development. In this part there is, however, one chapter, that on Interpretation, which treats of the most useful of all exercises in the elementary stages of writing.

In addition to being a help towards original composition, this book is intended to afford material for the study of prose literature. To neglect this, while poetry is being diligently studied in our schools, would be both illogical and unpractical. But poetry has one great advantage for school work, — it affords in abundance, short pieces, each a unity in itself. Prose works are usually of such length that the mere reading of one of them consumes much time. It is impossible to get sufficient variety within moderate compass ; unity and structure, — the most essential characteristics of literary art, — are, in consequence, less pronounced and apparent. This stumbling-block to the study of prose literature has at least to some extent been removed by the following selections, — varied in their character, and each possessing a unity of its own. Such a book as the present is a more convenient source of models in composition and literature than a whole library, and will save much labour to the teacher.

The treatment of the selections in the examinations of models is purposely varied, — sometimes the analysis is very brief, sometimes comparatively full, but never designedly exhaustive. The teacher may stop short in the investigation or continue it as the needs and capacity of each particular class demand.

The work is inductive in its general plan, all theory being based upon, and exemplified in, extracts from good writers. But induction has not been made a hobby. A school-boy is not competent to draw for himself the generalizations of rhetoric and criticism j he may be led up to them by a skilful teacher.

PREFACE.

v

As indicated before, this volume does not attempt to teach systematic rhetoric; that is always made subordinate to the practical purpose of opening the student’s eyes to the art of writing, for the practical purpose of enabling him to write. The teacher may find it expedient to supplement the work in rhetoric and in the correction of errors (see Appendix) by incidental teaching; Genung, Bain, and Barrett Wendell will be found useful for this purpose; but the systematic teaching should be compositional.

This book owes much to the copyright extracts which it contains ; the editors have much pleasure in acknowledging their indebtedness to the various writers and publishers who have generously permitted these extracts to be employed.

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Contents

Chapter. Page.

I. General Introduction 5

Part I. — Narrative Compositions

II. Narration 15

III. Personal Incidents 21

IV. Historical Narratives 33

Y. Stories 45

YI. Dialogues 85

VII. Narrative Letters 97

VIII. Narrative Compositions by Pupils 109

Part IT. — Descriptive Compositions.

IX. Description 119

X. Natural Objects 129

XI. Nature in Movement 137

XII. Exteriors of Buildings 147

XIII. Interiors of Buildings, 157

XIV. Towns and Cities 165

XV. Pen-Portraits 173

XVI. Character Sketches 185

XVII. Animals 201

XVIII. Assemblages 207

XIX. Works of Art 225

XX. Moods . . 233

XXI. Complex Descriptions 241

XXII. Narrative Descriptions 249

XXIII. Descriptive Letters 277

XXIV. Descriptive Compositions by Pupils. 285

CONTENTS.

Part III. — Expository Compositions; Chapter. ^agE

XXV. Exposition 295

XXYI. Interpretation Paraphrases , Abstracts, Expansion 301

XXVII. Terms and Propositions Expounded 319

XXVIII. Argumentative Expositions 349

XXIX. Speeches 397

XXX. Debates 419

XXXI. Expository Letters 447

Appendix

A. Punctuation 459

B. Grammar 465

C. Diction 472

D. Arrangement 480

E. Paragraphing 483

Index of Authors 493

COMPOSITION FROM MODELS.

Chapter I. General Introduction

Many persons are very sceptical with regard to the practical results of composition as it is actually taught in most schools. Some few assert that the art of writing cannot be taught at all ; they think this power a heaven-sent gift, and point to the great masters of English style, who for the most part had no direct training in composition, and certainly in no case owed their skill to such training. It may at once be admitted that the old-fashioned methods in composition are very ineffective. It may further be granted that if the aim of composition be the attainment of style, of literary charm, such result is beyond the scope of teaching. Artistic excellence is the outcome of special aptitudes and special advantages. But if the aim be the cultivation of the power of putting one’s thoughts on paper, in a clear, concise and correct manner, so that the reader may readily understand what the writer wishes to say, it seems no less unquestionable that composition may be successfully taught. And this aim is the only reasonable one. Very few pupils of the secondary schools enter a literary career, and it is no more the business of the schools to make any of them authors than to make them sculptors. But every one of them, whatever his calling, will often require the power of expressing his ideas fittingly. Every student who writes an examination paper requires it. Few things which can be taught at school are of more practical service in after life. Further, composition, properly taught, has another recommendation as a school subject ; it affords excellent mental discipline. If it has not done so hitherto, the methods in vogue are to blame.

The old-fashioned method was to assign as an exercise some vague general theme. No hint, no instruction, no stimulus was given ; the pupil was left to his own resources. In some fashion or other he was, perhaps, able to cover the requisite amount of paper ; the teacher then

COMPOSITION PROM MODELS.

pointed out obvious mistakes in grammar, spelling, sentence-structure and diction ; and that was all. This method gave some practice ; and when skill in doing a thing is the object, practice is essential. The result may have been a certain amount of facility. But the system gave no real discipline ; it did not teach the pupil to write effectively ; it almost certainly cultivated verbosity and slovenly habits of thought and expression.

The later method furnishes the pupil with the theory of composition, tells him what to avoid, what to strive after. It shows him that his composition should have a plan, and — a very important matter— selects themes for which the student has, or may obtain, material. The criticism of the written essay, in such cases, is much broader and more helpful than in the older method, and the student learns the all-important lesson that he must systematize his thought. But there has been at least one great lack. The doing of a thing is best taught not by theory but by example. A man can scarcely be made a skilful mechanic by oral lectures, even if he is set at putting his rules in practice. He must see the thing that is to be made, and see it, also, in process of manufacture. Imitation is the natural method in every art, and not least in the art of writing.

All literary skill is based on imitation. Every young author begins by imitating others. How great is the indebtedness of the modern writer to models it is difficult to realize, but the student of the development of literature gets some conception of the importance of imitation. Read the stumbling and awkward verses of Wyatt and Surrey, and compare them with the smooth easy lines written nowadays by very moderately endowed young persons. Why the striking disparity % It is simply that the earlier poets had to find out for themselves the way to write, while the later profit to an extent they little realize, by the abundant literature with which they are familiar. Note the blundering attempts at perspective of early masters, endowed with genius for their art, and the excellence in this respect of the works of the most commonplace modern painter. The student of early stages of literary development knows how long and how awkwardly generations of writers strove after a prose style which would convey their thoughts clearly and easily. This is strikingly illustrated in our own literature, and that, too, although the writers of the Renascence had models before them in foreign tongues both classic and modern. In the present day, every fairly educated person who takes pen in hand, can express himself with a clearness, correctness and brevity not to be found in the work of the great literary geniuses of earlier times ; and these are the fundamental requirements of good prose.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

In truth, the methods of teaching composition described, could not attain even the limited success which attends them — could not, in fact, attain any success at all, were it not that this element of imitation is actually present. The pupil is continually hearing the conversation of those about him, is reading more or less ; from these sources his mind is being stored, not merely with words, but with turns of expression, sentence-forms, methods of arrangement. When he writes, he is unconsciously imitating ; without models of some kind he would be absolutely helpless. But the imitation is unconscious, vague, ill-directed, perhaps based on altogether inadequate or unsuitable exemplars. The beginner in the art of writing ought to have before him models resembling as closely as may be the work which he seeks to produce, — models suitable in style, of a compass such that they may be grasped, not merely in detail, but as organic wholes. And it is not enough that he should have the finished product before him, his attention must be directed to the way in which that product is put together. He must learn inductively the methods which he is himself to employ.

It may be objected that conscious analysis and conscious synthesis have had no place in the works of the great masters of the art of writing, nor in the actual production of literature of any order. Such an assertion is probably a great overstatement of the facts. But accepting it as true, it simply means that imitation has been carried on in a round-about and clumsy fashion for whose defects innate aptitude has made amends. One may learn a complicated figure in skating by vague attempts at imitating the whole, but a speedier method is to analyse that whole into a series of movements, and then to attempt to combine these. In the matter of writing, such a procedure is the only one for the ordinary beginner who has no inborn genius for the art. To the skilled author, devices and methods are second nature ; he is not conscious of them. When we learn penmanship, we consider every stroke, and painfully join strokes into letters and words ; but, in process of time, we think merely of the word to be set down, and the hand writes it, not from a series of efforts, as at first, but from the one conscious impulse. The highest skill is always largely unconscious, but the readiest way of acquiring that skill is by the conscious application of method.

Doubtless, the highest literary effects evade analysis ; they are the product of endlessly complicated and subtle causes. From them arises the literary flavour, an indescribable charm and power. These qualities are indeed beyond the range of teaching ; but for ordinary men under ordinary circumstances they are by no means necessary. Whereas the more essential

COMPOSITION FROM MODELS.

qualities of prose — the effective arrangement of ideas and so forth — ate matters very open to analysis, and capable of being acquired by persons of average powers and education. The great geniuses themselves would, most of them, have been improved by some training of this kind. Many fine writers of English whose charm and force we all acknowledge, whose skill is altogether beyond us, would have greatly increased the effectiveness of their work by a little more attention* to principles of arrangement to be found in every good modern treatise on rhetoric.

Taking for granted then that the art of composition can be acquired, let us consider more in detail the method to be pursued. It must be noted, first of all, that in this subject the student, though in a very humble way, must be creative. In the case of most school work, he finds his material ready to his hand ; here he must be productive. If he will not, or cannot, write at all, he certainly cannot be taught to write correctly. Before the child can learn to walk he must have the spontaneous impulse to use his limbs, — at first, of course, in an irregular and ineffective manner.

The first necessity then is that the student should write something, and, if possible, write freely. Encouragement rather than criticism is requisite at this stage. The subject selected should be one of which the student either has knowledge, or may be able with ease to acquire it — narratives of his own experience, accounts of his sports, descriptions of familiar scenes and objects, reproductions of what he has read. The beginner is often unwilling to use the material at his command. He usually has a great idea of the dignity of writing ; what is familiar to him, what he really knows and therefore can best describe, seems too ordinary, too ‘ ‘ silly ” to be put on paper ; and he strives continually to get out of the range of familiar thoughts and details, to subjects and ideas which are beyond him. He should be made to understand that nothing is too insignificant to be employed in writing. It is minuteness of detail that gives vividness and freshness to much of later literature. As a further help towards fluency, the idiosyncrasies of the individual student should be consulted ; he should be allowed to write on those subjects and in those ways which suit him best. Overwrought language, theatrical sentiment, sensationalism, and other sins against good taste, should not, in the case of immature minds, be severely dealt with. But neatness, careful penmanship, good spelling, grammatical correctness should be demanded from the very first.

Students will often find more stimulus, and write more easily when attempting forms of composition wherein success is, at their stage, quite out of reach, than in those which might be regarded as really within their

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

powers. A story, an ambitious piece of description, a dialogue, will often stimulate minds which would be absolutely inert before the task of writing a simple narrative. It is for this reason that many of the models introduced in this volume are such as might be condemned at first sight as of an altogether too ambitious character. Some are sensational in tone, some written in a Style which is scarcely pleasing to the finest taste. But bold and striking effects, overwrought and mannered styles are naturally the first to commend themselves to nascent literary taste, just as bright and gaudy colours please the aesthetic sense of children and savages. The race and the individual develop, and at each stage they receive their training for higher things through those lower things which they are then capable of appreciating. It is only needful to take care that the proper growth is not prematurely checked, — that we do not rest satisfied with anything but the highest. Further, the models are taken from such a wide field that the objectionable mannerisms of any one writer are not likely to impress themselves on the imitator ; and in any case a large number of the following extracts are simple and direct, affording examples of the kind of writing which is most generally useful, and to which every one may with practice attain.

The subjects suggested in the Practice Lists have a general resemblance to the subjects of the selections immediately preceding ; and it will often prove advantageous to make the theme very exactly parallel to some one of the models. After studying, for example, Irving’s description of Christmas Eve at Bracebridge Hall (chap, xviii.), or Mrs. Carlyle’s narrative of her Journey in a Mail Coach (chap, vii.), the student might with advantage describe similar experiences of his own. The more prominent effects attained in Miss Duncan’s account of a Snow-storm at Tokio (chap, xi.), might be imitated by a pupil in describing a late snow-fall in his own country, or a hail-storm suddenly invading a picnic party clad in their light summer costumes. Even a certain slavishness in imitation is not to be reprehended in the earlier stages of the immature writer’s practice.

Another method of overcoming the difficulties arising from the poverty of ideas with which beginners are afflicted, is to resort to those forms in which the matter is supplied, as paraphrasing, the making of abstracts, and so forth. The student may reproduce narratives, descriptions, arguments, which he has heard read aloud. He need not in such cases avoid using the language and phraseology of the original, in as far as he can use them appropriately ; by employing them he stores his mind with new forms and yocabulary. This reading aloud of suitable passages for reproduction,

COMPOSITION FROM MODELS.

besides its use in the earlier stages of writing, disciplines the powers of attention, and, if skilfully employed, is an admirable instrument of literary culture. Again, the making of an abstract of a piece of good prose with the book before his eyes, is an excellent exercise. This, even in a greater degree, increases the linguistic stores ; while it tests and cultivates the judgment through the necessity of determining what points in the original are to be retained, what omitted. It serves also to instil the feeling for orderly development and connection in thought. The reproduction in good prose of the arguments of poetical pieces like the Deserted Village or Gray’s Elegy is a similar but more difficult exercise ; for poetry passes over links in thought which must be expressed in prose, whereas it dwells upon matters which should be touched lightly or omitted in a prose rendering.

A certain spontaneity, a certain amount of fluency is the essential prerequisite of all training in composition ; but this existing, or having been developed, the real training begins. When in the actual business of life we have to make use of our skill in composition, the problem is not to find something to say (our very writing implies that) nor to cover a given amount of paper (for as a rule the more we condense the better), but to say accurately and concisely and clearly what we wish to say. To acquire this power is a far harder task than to acquire fluency. Every person of accurate mind has felt the great difficulty of presenting his ideas so that the reader shall understand exactly and easily just what he means to convey ; great masters of the art of writing confess it. In the old-fashioned teaching of composition this difficulty was not imposed. The boy who wrote on such vague subjects as “Winter” or “ Perseverance,” was under no necessity of expressing anything exactly , had usually no thought in his own mind which he was anxious to put accurately into words. Any thought answered ; whether the language gave this shade of meaning or that, made no difference. The only requirements to be met were that there should be ideas in some way connected with the theme, and that the paper should be filled. Something is lacking in such practice, if it is to be any adequate preparation for the needs of subsequent life. If the lacking condition can be imposed, it is evident that composition instead of tending to cultivate verbosity and slovenly thinking, will afford an excellent discipline in clearness and accuracy of thought and expression. It has been observed over and over again that nothing so conduces to perspicuity in our own views as the necessity of expressing them for others.

Now, this necessity of expressing something definite, instead of merely expressing anything at all,-— this necessity of accurately adapting words to thought may be imposed in school composition in various ways.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

It is imposed, for example, in the reproducing of the substance of a poetical passage in prose form. Here the pupil is forced to embody not any idea, but certain definite ideas ; and, what is more, the teacher knows exactly what these ideas are, and can, therefore, judge accurately of the success of the attempt, and point out definitely the defects. It need scarcely be added that the whole force and meaning of the poetical passage cannot be reproduced in prose ; but there is a certain intellectual basis in the original passage, which can be so expressed. The paraphrase will be the parallel prose expression of the same thought, and will differ from the original as poetry in general differs from prose. Paraphrasing is a most useful exercise, though it seems to have fallen into disrepute, owing no doubt to its having been abused by those who did not understand the differences between prose and poetry.

In original composition, provided the theme be properly defined, the same discipline in accuracy may be given and the same tests may be applied by the teacher. The subject of the essay, the aim with which it is written, the audience to whom it is supposed to be addressed, should be definitely fixed. With these three objects clearly in view, it is not difficult to discriminate between vague generalities, superfluous details, meaningless epithets, on the one hand, and clear effective writing on the other. Let some scene in the neighbourhood, for example, be selected as the subject of a descriptive essay, and let the person for whom the description is intended, the object which the description is to attain, be definitely fixed. It is easy then to determine how far any part of the description accurately represents the facts, is adapted to the persons addressed, attains the aim in view. The necessity of such definition is apparent when we consider how the nature of the details will vary, for example, according as the supposed reader is familiar with the scene, or totally unacquainted with it ; according as the chief aim is to impart a clear conception of the general character of the country, or the impression which it produces on the mind of the beholder. It is the commonest mistake to write without clearly defining any of these things. This sentence will then be fitted for one reader and one end ; that, for another reader and another end. What wonder if the whole is ineffective ! We feel it to be so, yet cannot tell where to begin our criticism. On the other hand, when these things are defined, it is easy t& test and make apparent truth of observation, accuracy of expression, aptness of language, effective selection and arrangement of details, and the success of the piece as a whole. So in the case of an argument, exposition, or narrative; if subject, person addressed, aim, be defined, similar tests may be applied. Composition ceases to be

COMPOSITION FROM MODELS.

a mere exercise in correct and smooth writing ; it comes to be an exercise in clear and effective use of ideas and in the power of expressing them.

The lists of subjects for composition in this text book are intended to suggest proper themes to teacher or student. In the book they are necessarily more or less vague ; before being used they ought to be defined. If the subject suggested be a storm, let it be defined as some particular storm in the writer’s experience. There is room also, no doubt, for themes of a less definite character ; the student may describe a storm with the liberty of drawing on his imagination, or, to speak more clearly, of drawing on his experience of many storms, to produce an effective picture of an imaginary one. But here, again, the particular effect he aims at in this picture must be laid down, and the merits of the essay judged by his success in attaining it. It should be understood that while it is essential that the subject, aim, etc., should be clearly fixed before the composition is written, the definition need not always be imposed by the teacher. The student should often shape the theme co suit what is in his mind. In any case, it is always advisable to draw up a plan of the composition, and to submit it to criticism before beginning the actual writing.

The present volume is designed for the secondary schools mainly, and not for use in the most elementary stages of composition. But it may not be out of place to say that exercises in putting their own thoughts on paper should be prescribed for children as soon as they are at all capable of doing this. They will write more readily -than older pupils, because they are less self-conscious. Early and continued practice might prevent that helplessness in expressing themselves and barrenness of ideas which are so often observed in boys and girls, for these are usually the result of a sort of shyness and intellectual stiffness. Writing like dancing will be best acquired if the practice is begun early ; neither mind nor limbs should be allowed to stiffen into awkwardness. Of course, in the case of these earliest attempts, there should be no criticism of the composition as such. Nothing should be looked for except neatness, correct spelling, grammar, and the proper use of words. It would be absurd to find fault with the sentences because they are short and abrupt, much more to object to the lack of close and logical connection in thought. By and by, the pupil should be led on to the writing of more elaborate sentence forms, and taught to do so without violating the laws of unity and clearness. Therewith will go some instruction in elementary punctuation. Next, attention must be drawn to the relation of successive sentences to one another. This, in turn, Avill naturally lead to paragraphing. Finally, the learner’s attention must be centred on the arrangement of the composition, so as to form an

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

effective whole. There is no mechanical division between these stages and subjects, they pass into one another ; but it is advantageous that the chief stress of the teaching should be directed in succession upon these various aspects of written language. Of course, elementary matters are not to be neglected in the later stages ; the elementary virtues of writing ought always to be practised, and should gradually become second nature.

The final and persistent problem tor the writer is to say exactly what he wishes to say, so that his reader may easily grasp it. If there is such a thing as the pursuit of style apart from this end, such pursuit should be zealously eschewed. No style which exists for itself, i.e. apart from its power of reinforcing the meaning in some way or other, is a good style. Style that is worth anything is individual — the result of character; it gives a power to the written word, similar to that which the personality of the man gives to his spoken words. If it ever comes, it will best come through keeping the mental eye steadily fixed upon the thought. Let the student strike out all passages which have been elaborated through the conscious attempt to be fine — to make a striking or pretty sentence rather than to give clear and adequate expression to an idea.

Although style is not a thing to be taught, there are certain tendencies in style which the immature writer ought to be warned against. There is the poetical style — the tendency to use figures, ornament, picturesque nouns and adjectives out of place, the attempt to touch the feelings by tawdry sentiment and so forth. Akin to this and equally to be avoided is the pompous style which employs long and unusual words, when simple ordinary ones would suit as well, or better, — which sacrifices clearness and the natural order fo£ the sake of rhythm, and uses for a similar reason inappropriate words or more words than are necessary. Finally, and perhaps commonest of all in our day and country, is the burlesque style which employs pompous language, not seriously as in the last case, but jocularly ; which consciously and continually exaggerates for humorous effect, and commonly interlards the whole with abundant slang. Such writing is supposed to be lively and vivacious. It is in truth most depressing, and further, has the great defect for the beginner that it serves as a cloak for all sorts of inaccuracies of expression. For a vague, or inaccurate or exaggerated term, the writer has always the plea that it was employed purposely for humorous effect. Each of these styles has been employed by great writers, sometimes with very considerable effect. But none of them is the style of standard prose ; all of them are extremely difficult to employ successfully, and all of them lead the young