Christian institutions

Front matter

PRINCETON, N. J. ^*

Shelf.

1908.

Chapter I

The organization of the church, not the result of accident, but reflects deep motives in the Christian life or in Christian civilization. The origin of the Christian ministry a matter of controversy in the sixteenth century. The attitude of Jerome, who denied the ' divine riglit' of episcopacy, and maintained that the elevation of the bishop above the presbyter was an ecclesiastical arrangement. The statement of Jerome incorporated in the Canon Law of the Roman church. To this statement the appeal was made in the age of the Reformation. The English Reformers influenced by it, as well as the Puritans. Hence the caution and moderation of the tone of the English Reformers. A change in the Church of England toward the close of the century, and episcopacy by ' divine right ' asserted by Bancroft, and by Hall, who sought to overcome the force of Jerome's influence. The Puritans in reply maintained the statement of Jerome, and identified bishops and presbyters in the Apostolic age. Jeremy Taylor the first to maintain that Apostles were originally bishops, but not known by that title. In the sixteenth century Anglicans had held that the form of church government was not prescribed by Scripture, while Puritans held that Presbyterianism was of divine appointment. In the seventeenth century these attitudes reversed, Anglicans maintaining episcopacy by 'divine right,' while Puritans took Hooker's ground, that the form was a matter of indifference. The discovery of the Shorter Greek Recension of the Ignatian Epistles as giving a new direction to the controversy, but leading to no results. A new impulse given to the discussion in the nineteenth century by the application of the principle of historical development. Theories of the origin of the episcopate maintained by Rothe and by Baur. Contribution to the inquiry by Ritschl. Renan's contention that ecclesiastical organization was influenced by secular models. The important service rendered by Bishop Lightfoot in vindicating the genuine-

vii

Vlll CONTENTS ness of the Ignatian Epistles and in other ways. Dr. Hatch questioned Jerome's statement, which Lightfoot had approved, that 'bishop' and 'presbyter' were at first synonymous terms. Dr. Harnack demonstrates that the office of ' bishop ' was from the first distinct from that of ' presbyter.' The discovery of the Didache furnishes the missing link between the Apostolic age and the time of Ignatius.

Ignorance of the date of the New Testament writings makes exact statement impossible in regard to changes of organization, but the difficulty in a measure overcome by classifying these writings according to generations. In the first Christian generation, the ^ writings of St. Paul furnish the authoritative account of the ministry. It was divided into two ranks : the higher, including Apostles, prophets, and teachers ; and the lower, or local administrative offices. The first and only mention of bishops is in the Epistle to the Philippians, where there is more than one bishop in the community. The account of St. Paul in harmony with that given in the early part of the Acts of the Apostles. The Twelve and the appointment of the Seven illustrate the higher and the lower grades of the ministry, — the ministry of the Word, and the ministry of the tables. Tlie connection of the Seven with the later diaconate. The prophets occupy the second place in the higher grade. Distinction between Apostles and prophets. The office of the teacher. These three classes of officers constituted a ministry at large, and were not localized. Their separate functions might be united in one man, as in the case of St. Paul. The Apostolate as limited to the Twelve. The larger Apostolate, which included St. Paul and many others. How far the larger Apostolate had been eye-witnesses of the Resurrection. The labors of St. Paul as an Apostle. Slight information regarding the Apostolic activity of the Twelve. Appointment to the larger Apostolate ; in the case of St. Paul, through the agency of prophets 'and teachers. On this larger Apostolate, and not exclusively on the Twelve, the church was built as a foundation, together with the prophets, and Christ as the Corner Stone.

The first generation of the Apostolic age followed by the age of the elders or presbyters. 'J'he prominence of the presbyters disclosed in the New Te.stament writings of the second generation. The list of officers given in the Epistle to the Ephesians. Use of the terms 'evangelist,' 'pastor,' Tiyov/j-evoL. Light thrown by the

CONTENTS ix

Pastoral Epistles. The qualifications of the bishops, and their relation to the presbyters. Whether there was a plural episcopate or a single bishop in the church at Ephesus. The presbyterate, as it appears in the Second and Third General Epistles of St. John.

To the third generation belong the Epistle of Clement of Rome, the Didache, the Shepherd of Ilermas, and the Ignatian Epistles. General characteristics of Clement's epistle. The list of church officers enumerated. The burden of his message, that all things should be done in order. His comparison of the Christian ministry to the Jewish priesthood. The doctrine of the transmission of authority through verbal commission. How far his teaching is sanctioned by the New Testament. Contention in regard to the episcopal office and how it is to be overcome. The exact nature of the disturbance at Corinth is not made apparent. The episcopate as a life office. Four grades of officers in the Roman church, when Clement wrote, and the episcopate a plural one. In the Shepherd of Hernias, the officers of the church are prophets, teachers, presbyters, bishops, and deacons. The interest of Hermas centres in the prophets. The Didache alludes to Apostles, prophets, and teachers as still the officers of the church, but they are on the eve of vanishing. The prophet may be settled in a community, or bishops (the plural episcopate) and deacons may be appointed as a substitute by the congregation. There is no mention of the presbyter, but bishops and deacons are coupled together, as in the Pastoral Epistles, in the Epistle of Clement, and in the Shepherd of Hermas.

CHAPTER V

Date of the Ignatian writings. Apostles, prophets, and teachers have disappeared. The object of Ignatius is to exalt the episcopate, but not to depreciate the presbyterate. Obedience is enjoined to the threefold order, — bishops, presbyters, and deacons. The chief stress laid upon submission to the bishop as standing in the place of God. The presbyters are always represented as successors of the Apostles, and in this respect Ignatius is in harmony with New Testament precedents. The coimection of the bishop with the Eucharist a vital one in Ignatius' mind. No importance attached to tradition, or to Apostolic authority in urging obedience to the bishop ; but the authority of Ignatius is a direct message from the Spirit. His silence regarding the order of prophets difficult to explain. His scheme a transcendental one. The character of Ignatius and of the time as throwing light upon his teaching.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

Theories regarding the Origin of the Episcopate . . 72-86

(1) The government of the church varied in different places and at different times in the same place. But beneath the variations there was principle and unity. (2) The position of James, the Lord's brother, in the church at Jerusalem as a witness to the Apos- ' tolic origin of the episcopate. But this position was exceptional, resting on a peculiar basis, and constituting a peculiar type, neither of which were followed in the Ignatian episcopate. (3) The episcopate arose by the localization of the Apostolate. The evidence for this is lacking ; the calling of an Apostle incongruous with his settlement. The cases of Peter and John. The silence of the Ignatian Epistles. The Apostle not the prototype of the bishop. (4) That presbyter and bishop are names used as synonyms in the New Testament, and that the episcopate was formed out of the presbyterate by elevation. Grounds on which this theory has been questioned and rejected. Presbyters always mentioned by themselves, " and where thus mentioned no allusion is made to bishops and deacons. Significance of the association of bishops with deacons ; both were connected with the administration of the Eucharist. The bishop was the financial officer of the local community, to which, in connection with his relation to the Eucharist, he owed his prominence in the local community. Growing importance of the Eucharist in the second century furnishes a clew to the elevation of the bishop above the presbyter. The function of the presbyter was changing. He was originally the bearer of the tradition, but the appearance of the Rules of Faith and of the Canon of the New Testament rendered this function superfluous. No complete picture of the situation can yet be formed, but the outline is clear. The significance of the elevation of the bishop lies in giving the foremost place to the administration of ecclesiastical affairs.

CHAPTER VII

The Christian Ministry in the Second Century . . 87-106

At the beginning of the century the bishop was presented as the . successor of Christ ; at the end of the century he had become the successor of the Apostles. Explanation of the change. The presbyter at first presented as the successor of the Apostles. Why the presbyter lost this position. The change was owing to the necessity of overcoming the heretics, who appealed to the tradition. To meet the Gnostics was one object in the formation of the Canon, and of the Rules of Faith, of which the bishop became the official curator. The presbyter was no longer needed as a witness to the tradition. Illustrations of the situation in the utterances of Papias, of Hegesippus, and in the writings of Irenseus. AVhy Irenasus seems to use the names 'presbyter' and 'bishop' as synonymous.

CONTENTS Xi

Theory of Irenseus regarding the Apostolical succession. Tertullian's presentation of the subject in his Prescription of Heretics ; his theory of Apostolical succession. The change in the presbyter's office completed by the end of the second century. The bishop had absorbed the presbyter's function, which had then become a purely administrative one, and to the presbyter was assigned a share in the bishop's original function of administering the Eucharist. In the time of Tertullian, the larger Apostolate had been forgotten, and the name of Apostle was limited to the Twelve, with the exception of St. Paul. The passing of the prophets. Montanism, an effort to restore the office ; conflict between the bishops and the prophets. The ideal of the episcopate as compared with the mission of the prophets. The rise of the Catholic church, and its struggle with Montanism. Weakness in the Montanist conception of prophecy. The transition of Tertullian from the Catholic church to the Montanists, an illustration of the movements of the age. Prophecy was condemned and banished, but the settlement of the second century not a final one. Effect of the suppression of prophecy. The office of the Reader, the last relic of the ancient prophetic order.

CHAPTER VIII

The bishop, hitherto the pastor of the local church, begins to pass over into the diocesan bishop. Explanation of the change. Rivalry and conflict between bishops and presbyters. Cyprian held the Roman theory of the transmission of power. The question of ordination became, in consequence, of the highest importance. Belief that the Holy Spirit was imparted by ordination in contrast with the earlier conviction that the antecedent action of the Spirit justified ordination. Instances of ordination in the New Testament. Significance of the laying on of hands. Prophets and teachers received no ordination. No mention of the ordination of bishops in the New Testament. Absence of allusion to the method of ordination in writings of the second century; Clement of Rome, the Didache, the Epistles of Ignatius, are silent as to the mode of making presbyters and bishops. The ordination of a bishop in the Apostolic Ordinances ; in the Clementine writings ; according to the Canons of Hippolytus ; in the church at Alexandria. Cyprian's rule for making a bishop. The power invested in the bishops of the province, and no longer in the congregation. The bishops, according to Cyprian, constitute the church. His theory of Apostolical succession. Ordinations by presbyters forbidden. The principle adopted that no ordination was valid without the co-operation or sanction of the bishop. Traces of an earlier usage. Distinctions among the bishops. The later type of bishop first developed in the great cities. Cyprian vindicates the equality

XU CONTENTS of the bishops, but his conception of the ministry deepens the separation between clergy and laity. The Christian ministry is transformed into a priesthood after Jewish analogies. Hence followed the necessity of altar and sacrifice. Cyprian's theory of Apostolical succession compared with earlier theories. Growth of the metropolitan bishops. Efforts to increase the dignity of the episcopate. Relation of church and state. Cyprian's attitude provoked the resistance of the state. Significance of the rise of priesthoods. The Decian and Diocletian persecutions. The coming of Constantine and the changed relations of the church to the state. Peculiarities of Cyprian's conception of the episcopate in contrast with the original motive of the olfice. Cyprian a Montanist at heart ; he endeavored to combine Montanism and Catholicity, with a result that was impracticable and intolerable. Difference in attitude and circumstances between the Eastern and Western episcopates.

CHAPTER IX

monasticism in its relation to the episcopate and to the

Catholic Church 137-178

The episcopate had found its opportunity in the city. Monasticism was a return to the country. The praise of solitude by Jerome. In its origin, monasticism was indifferent, if not averse,' to the Catholic church, its priesthood and sacraments. Its keynote on its ecclesiastical side was the dictum of Jerome that in the beginning of Christ's religion the bishoi^ and presbyter were of equal authority. Relation of Jerome to the bishops. That monasticism may be regarded as the continuation of the Montanist purpose is shown by their common features. Montanism, Novatianism, Donatism, Monasticism, constitute the line of succession. The Catholic church stood for solidarity, monasticism for the principle of individualism. The Catholic church was too sti'ong to be overcome by the monastic movement, nor could the latter be suppressed as Montanism had been. In the compromise which was effected, the Eastern church succeeded in placing the monasteries under episcopal control, but its bishops were henceforth taken from the monasteries. Results of this compromise. In the West, the Eastern system of patriarchates and metropolitans had not been developed, and under this looser organization a greater opportunity was afforded to monasticism. The papacy was a compromise between the episcopate and the monastery, leaning more to the monastic interpretation of life than to the secular as represented by the bishop. The alliance between the papacy and mona,sticism, first seen in Gregory the Great, was more fully realized under Hildebrand. In mediating between the episcopate and monasticism, the papacy fulfilled its highest function. To the monastery and not to the bishop is chiefly owing the conversion of Western Europe. In the intellectual development, the monks

CONTENTS Xiii took the lead. Among them are also to be found the greatest saints. Equally important is their relation to the development of civilization. The contrast between early monasticism and its later forms. The secret of its history and of its success is what we know as individualism, for which the Catholic church had made no provision under the episcopate. The struggle between the bishops and the monasteries, or between the ' secular ' and ' religious ' sides of the Mediteval church. In its first phase, the secular won, and the monks were enrolled in the clerical order. In the next stage, the monasteries were emancipated from episcopal control. The monastery won another victory when celibacy was enforced on the clergy. The bishops gave no support to Hildebrand when he began his attack on the married clergy. The attempt of monasticism to enforce poverty on the secular clergy ended in failure, and with this failure Monasticism reached its limit and entered on its decline. Other causes for its decline. In what ways it had ministered to its higher purpose. The survival of its spirit. How the monastic oi'ganization was affected by the decline and fall of the papacy. The monastic presbyter was then left free with no episcopal authority which could command his obedience. The secular clergy took the vow of obedience to the bishop, the monastic clergy to the presbyter-abbot. This circumstance exerted its influence on the organization of the Protestant churches. The worsliip, also, of the monasteries was of a different type from that which was cultivated by the episcopate in the parish churches.

CHAPTER X

The Greek Church — Nationality and the Episcopate . 179-201

It was one function of the episcopate in the Middle Ages to minister to the growth of the national consciousness. The bishop became an officer of the state, and for this task was fitted by the peculiar characteristics of his office. The monkish clergy indifferent to the welfare of the state. The secular tendency inherent in the episcopate. National rivalries in the East. Their influence in ecclesiastical controversies. Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople. Effect of these national jealousies and antipathies on Catholic unity. Schism between the Greek and Latin churches. Condemnation of Roman usages at the Second TruUan Council. The charges against Rome preferred by Photius, the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Azymite heresy. Further alienation of the two churches in the Image-worship Controversy. Connection between East and West a nominal one since the fall of the Western Empire in 476. What significance is to be attached to that date. Charlemagne's coronation further separates the churches. The principle of Catholic unity as illustrated in the Eastern church.

XIV CONTENTS

CHAPTER XI

The process in Gaul by which tlie bishop made the transition from being the pastor of the local church to the ruler of a large diocese. The bishops became important personages. Their relations to the Merovingian monarchs. Question raised as to their appointment. Decline of the episcopate in the seventh century. The reform came from the monastery. The process began of subjecting the episcopate to the papacy. Revival of the metropolitan oflBce under Charlemagne. The Capitulary of Frankfort. The effort of the bishops to escape from the control of metropolitans. The Forged Decretals ; their motive and their result. Tendency of the episcopate toward alliance with the sovereigns. A secular tendency fexisted in the office from its first appearance. The work of the bishops in the Middle Ages, of a twofold character, to represent the church to the state, and to adapt religion to the masses of the peoples. Their work a successful one. The papacy indifferent to nationality. Lack of the national patriarchate. Hildebrand's aim to subordinate nationality to imperialism. The Investiture Controversy. The bishops incline to support the secular authority. Illustrations in Germany, France, and England. Results of the Investiture Controversy. The growth of nationality facilitated by the union of the episcopate with the crown. Theory of relationship of the episcopate to the papacy. The bishops fail the pope in the effort to exterminate heresy. The monasteries furnish the tribunal of inquisition. The crusade against the Albigenses. The bishops in sympathy with the crown in the conflict with Boniface VIII. Great value of the work done by the episcopate in the Middle Ages. The Council of Constance and the assertion of the principle of nationality. Decline of the Roman principle of Catholicity.

CHAPTER XII

The Organization of the Churches in the Age of the

Reformation 231-278

The Reformers did not break up the unity of Christendom. The revolution had been accomplished before they appeared. The changes of the sixteenth century governed by the law of develop-, ment. The Reformers did not aim at external unity, but assumed the unity of the Spirit as actual, although invisible. They rejected the Latin theory of Catholicity. The claims of papacy, episcopacy, and presbytery as presented at the Council of Constance. The Franciscans a type of ecclesiastical organizations in the age of the Reformation. The Brothers of the Common Life. Influence of the monastery on the Reformation in Germany. The New Testament was substituted for tradition as the supreme authority. In-

CONTENTS XV fluence of this conviction upon human arrangements. Change in the conception of tlie presbyter's functions. Return of prophecy. Its relation to reform. It possesses a corrective laclcing in the second century. Tlie return of the teaclier. Alliance between prophecy and learning in Germany. Cranmer and Calvin. Change in the idea of the church. The changed conception of ordination. Influence of the monastery in the elevation of the presbyterate. The episcopal and presbyterial vows. Qualifications for the presbyterate. The bishops as the defenders of the faith. Value of their tradition in the eyes of the Reformers. Influence of the doctrine of Justificatiou by Faith, in overcoming the corruptions of the Mediaeval church. Why the episcopate was retained in England and Sweden, and rejected in Germany, Scotland, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The situation in Geneva. The influence of Jerome's statement. Eveiy country was free to choose its form of ecclesiastical organization. Presbyters led the Reformation in Germany, in Switzerland, in Scotland ; but in England and Sweden it was led by the crown with the acquiescence of the episcopate. Influence of nationality upon the retention of the episcopate. Countries converted by monastic agency abandoned the episcopate. The situation in England. The principles of Wycliffe. The English Reformation developed bishops as leaders. How the English church treated the monasteries, and the consequence of this treatment in its later history. Nonconformity in England. The larger bearing of the issue between episcopacy and presbytery. Analogy in Jewish history. The title ' Protestant' not the antithesis of ' Catholic' How the Protestant Reformers deflned Catholicity. The use of ' Catholic ' in the creeds. Resemblances between the Protestant churches and the greater monastic orders of the Latin church. The evils of Protestantism as compared with its advantages and its blessings.

Book II The Catholic Creeds And The Develop- Ment Of Doctrine

CHAPTER I

The Apostles' Creed ; time and place of its origin. Whether it was a protest against Docetism. The Rule of Faith given by Ignatius. The Apostles' Creed as the expansion of the baptismal formula. Its historical character. Not known in the Eastern church till the time of Origen. His commentary upon it. The Eastern Creeds : Creed of Gregory Thaumaturgus ; of the church in Ctesarea ; the Nicene Creed ; Creed of the Church in Jerusalem ; its later en-

XVI CONTENTS largement as presented to the Council of Constantinople in 381 ; its approval by the Council at Chalcedon in 451, and its substitution for the Nicene Creed. The enlargement of the Roman or Apostles' Creed in the eighth century. Comparison of the Apostles' and Nicene creeds. The controversial character of the Nicene Creed.

The Doctrine of the Trinity — Its Place in History and its

Relation to Human Progress 295-332

The formula of the Trinity grew out of the divine name given in the baptismal formula. The triune name as corresponding to the large divisions of religious experience. The religion of nature, the . religion of humanity, the religion of the inner life. The doctrine of the Trinity alone among Christian doctrines created no incurable schism. The v^^hole church contributed to its development : Ebionitism, Gnosticism, and Montanism. Patripassianism. The theory of emanation. Relation of the doctrine to Greek philosophy. The formula of the Homoousion. Arianism as an interpretation of the relation of church and state. Opposition of the Roman emperors to the Nicene Creed. Its final proclamation by Theodosius, as the Catholic faith. The relation of the Homoousion to the elevation and dignity of man. The teaching of Athanasius. His conflicts with the Empire. Relation of the Homoousion to the rise of monasticism. Its influence in Gaul. Hilary of Poitiers. Arianism among the barbarians, and the reason for its espousal by them. The Homoousion becomes the supreme issue of the rising civilization. Gregory of Tours and his conversations with Arians. The addition of the filioque to the Nicene Creed. The so-called Athanasian Creed. Time and place of its origin. Its identification of the Catholic faith with the doctrine of the Trinity. Its damnatory clauses. As a war-cry against Mohammedanism. The growth of freedom in Gaul. The Protestant Reformers retain the three creeds. In holding to the Trinity, they remained within the pale of the Catholic church. The Homoousion, the social compact on which church and state reposed. The Reformers were aware of its significance and gave it the foremost place in their Confessions of Faith. The case of Servetus.

The Historical Significance of the Miracle . . . 333-345

What is meant by Historical Christianity. The importance assigned to the miracle in the Apostles' Creed. Comparison in this respect with the early Eastern creeds. Definition of the miracle . varies in the two churches. Faith as related to the miracle.

CONTENTS xvii

PAGKB

Results of the miracle upon the idea of God and the freedom of man. It stands in opposition to the nature-worships. Its prominence in Christianity, and its rejection by Buddhism and Islam has a deep significance. The miracle in the Middle Ages. Its relation to the development of the natural sciences.

The Life of the Spirit — The Doctrine of the Atonement —

The Relation of the Divine to the Human . . 346-381

The silence of the Catholic creeds, and its explanation. They represent the popular form of Christianity as represented by the episcopate or the ' secular ' clei'gy in contrast with the monastery, where scientific theology had its development. The coming of Augustine, and its significance for the inner life of thought and experience. Individualism and its relation to theological inquiry. The doctrine of atonement not contained in the creeds, but is prominent in Protestant Confessions of Faith. How far the doctrine was recognized in the ancient church, and the shape which it took. Ignorance the source of the evil from which man is delivered. Identification of humanity with Christ. The theory of a ransom paid to iSatan found in Origen and the later Greek Fathers, but not as their higher thought. Divergence between the Greek and Latin churches regarding the idea of God and the nature of man. Augustine the first to identify the Catholic church with the kingdom of God. Change from Platonism to Ari.stotelianism. In the West, God was conceived in His essence as will ; herein lies the explanation of the Latin conception of the church and of the papacy, and of the later Augustinian theology. Augu.stine held the doctrine that a ransom was paid to Satan, but it was not his complete thought. A great advance when Anselm taught that the ransom was paid to God. By his doctrine of atonement Anselm overcomes in principle the idea of God as absolute will on which the papacy rested. Later theories of atonement in the Latin church. Comparison between Calvinism and Augustinianism. The doctrine of atonement in recent Protestant writers. The principle of the Fatherhood of God. Dr. Bushnell's speculations on the subject. The value of the altar language. Controversy regarding the Two Natures. Nestorianism. Cyril's conception of the relation of the divine and human. The decision of Council of Chalcedon. Deficiencies of the controversy. The principle at issue reappears in modern controversies regarding the divine and tlie human element in Scripture. Dangers of fusing the human with the divine.

xvm CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

The Person of Christ in Modern Thought — Difficulty with

THE Miracle — Anglican and German Theology . 382-398

The stress of modern inquiry has been placed on tlie moral character of Christ. Christ is conceived after the analogy of the teacher who permeates humanity by his spiritual influence. The word ' teacher ' as applied to Christ in the New Testament. Difficulty of reconciling this conception of Christ with the miracle. Causes of the modern repugnance to the miracle. Kesi-stance to the miracle does not imply its rejection. Rothe's view of the miracle. The Protestant churches, while accepting the creeds, vary in their interpretation of them. There is no necessary opposition between the creeds and the theologies. The doctrine-histories, as supplanting the older method of producing systems of theology. The , distinction between creed and doctrine. The Church of England gives theology expression in commentaries on the creeds. The Nicene Creed as the formula of Christian unity.

Book III Chapter I

Value of the two sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's Supper, as expressing the essence of the Christian faith. Exalted and positive tone in speaking of baptism in the early church. The religious experience of Cyprian. Changes which the rite of baptism has undergone. The repetition of, forbidden. The formula of baptism. Baptism in the name of Jesus only. Anonymous treatise on Rebaptism in the age of Cyprian, and combating his policy. The meaning of Confirmation. Baptism preceded by an ethical training in the Catechumenate. Transition from adult to infant baptism ; an expression of the sanctity of life. The overcoming of infanticide. The doctrine of infant damnation. The Catechumenate preceding baptism in the early church gives way in the Middle Ages to discipline after baptism. The 'penitential books' ; their method and value. "Whosesoever sins ye remit." The inward motive and the outward act. Substitution in punishment. The doctrine of endless punishment. Purgatory. The common treasury of merit. Indulgences. Defect in the Mediseval system of discipline. The unconscious aims of life. Martin Luther. The principle of the opus operatum. The system of discipline not retained in the Lutheran and Anglican churches. Its decline in the Reformed church. Ethical modes and standards. The Book of

CONTENTS XIX

PACTS

Common Prayer. The doctrine of Election and the Reformed church. Tlie doctrine of Justification by Faitli and tlie church in Germany. Private judgment. The duty toward man and the duty toward God. Tlie freedom of tlie Christian man. Dangers which threaten freedom. The progress of the race and of the individual. The confession of St. Paul, " 1 have kept the faith."