China and the Chinese : a general description of the country and its inhabitants ; its civilization and form of government ; its religious and social institutions ; its intercourse with other nations, and its present condition and prospects

Front matter

I Anpon | from the estate of

MARK SELTZER

CHINA

Preface

Our new relations with China, her practical nearness to us, and more especially the late visit of the Chinese Embassy, have served to awaken a new interest in that Empire. Seldom have two parties been suddenly brought together, who had before so thoroughly misunderstood each other as have we and the Chinese. I have been asked by intelligent scholars in-China — " Do you have schools in your country ?" When they discover that we, whom they have been accustomed to regard as barbarians, give evidence of some degree of mental culture, and are ac^ quainted with their language and literature, the question naturally arises in their minds — "Do they obtain their education in China; or may they not have schools in their own country?" When told that institutions of learning are common with us, the inference is very apt to be — " Then the people of your honorable nation are also acquainted with the books of Confucius ;" supposing that wherever throughout the world there are schools, the text-books must of course be the Chinese Classics, as few of them have a conception of a system of instruction derived from any other source.

This ignorance of other countries is truly remarkable : but hardly more so than that which exists among Western nations with reference to the Chinese. I have been asked by educated men in the United States — "Are not the

6 PREFACE.

Chinese a remarkably dull and uninteresting people ? Are they susceptible of feelings of affection and gratitude? Are you able to, develop their intellectual and moral perceptions ; and have any of them really become true and reliable Christians?"

The erroneous views which we mutually entertain of each other are due to a want of reliable information ; and this want has resulted from our wide separation, and our infrequent and imperfect intercourse.

Now that China — which we have heretofore thought of as situated in the extreme East, and shut off from us by the intervening nations of Europe and Asia — has become our next neighbor on the West, it is very important that we become better acquainted with its inhabitants, and that we and they should cultivate that mutual respect and sympathy which ought to characterize two great nations whose interests and destinies are in the future to be so closely united.

To promote this desirable end is the principal object of this book ; and if it should in any good degree subserve so important a purpose it will require no apology for its publication.

Tt has been my design to give a general description of China and the Chinese, rather than detailed information on particular subjects, having special reference to the religious condition and wants of the people, and the character and results of the labors of missionaries.

While making occasional use of other works on China, I have depended, for the most part, on my own observations and experiences during ten years of familiar intercourse with all classes of the people, and in different parts of the Empire.

Most of the contents of the chapters relating to the prevalent religions and superstitions are taken from letters

PREFACE. 7

which I prepared while in China, which were published in " The Home and Foreign Eecord " and the " Foreign Missionary."

In quoting from the Chinese Classics in the third chapter, I have generally adopted the excellent translation made by Dr. Legg of Hong-kong.

I have been careful not to make statements of facts without their being well authenticated ; and I believe that the opinions advanced in this book will accord in the main with those of other persons who have had the same opportunities for observation.

John L. Nevius.

Ovid, N. Y., August, 1868.

Chapter I. General View Of The Chinese Empire

Tho word China not Known by the Chinese. — The Names they Use to Designate their Country. — General Resemblance of China to the United States: in Position, Form, Climate, Productions, Natural and Artificial Divisions, and in Area. — Description of the Walled Cities of China. — The Population of the Empire. — Peculiarities of Climate, and their Connection with the Monsoons. — Rivers and Natural Scenery .... Page 21

Chapter II. General View Of The Country And Its Inhabitants — Continued

Travelling. — Roads. — Streets. — Canals. — Boats. — Sculls. — Mud-slides. — Sedans, or Kiau-ts. — Burden-beaj^ej^^^PiC4sts^x)f Burden. — Mule-litters. — Productions of the Soil. — Different Varieties of Teas. — Vegetables.— Fruits. — Implements. — The Threshing-floors of Scripture. — The Use of Fertilizers.— Style of Architecture and Materials used.— Fire-walls in Cities. — No Stoves in Northern Houses. — Artisans. — Business Men. — Order and General Prosperity 31

Chapter III. Confucius And Confucianism

The Relation of Confucianism to the Chinese Civilization. — The name Confucius.—His Character and Mode of Life.— The Manner in which he is Regarded by the Chinese.— His own Estimate of Himself.— Not the Originator of a New System, but the Propounder and Perpetuator of an Ancient One. — The Confucian Classics. — General Description of the Contents.—The Five Relations of Life.— The Five Virtues.— The Political and Governmental Feature of Confucianism. — Importance of Self-government and Culture.— General Estimate of Confucius and his System 4G

A2

Chapter IV. Competitive Examinations And Schools

The Chinese Idea of the Qualifications of Officers. — Origin of the Competitive Examinations. — Classes of Persons excluded. — Two Preparatory Examinations.— Examination for Conferring the 1st Degree. — For Conferring the 2d Degree. — 3d Degree. — Corresponding Military Examinations. — Various Advantages secured by the Literary Examinations. — The Position and Influence of Literary Men. — Character of Chinese Schools. — Pupils Commit to Memory whole Books without Understanding their Meaning Page 55

Chapter V. The Constitution Of The Chinese Government

The Chinese Government Patriarchal. — Titles of the Emperor. — The Throne not strictly Hereditary. — Relation of the Emperor to his Officers. — The Cabinet. — The General Council. — The Six Boards. — Different Courts and the Censorate. — The Imperial Academy. — Provincial Governments.— The Civil Code. — Practical Workings of the Chinese Government.— Restraints brought to Bear upon the Emperor, Officers, and the People. — The People sometimes Assert and Demand their Rights. — Insurrections and Rebellions. — Republicanism of China. — Village Elders. — Private Redress. — Family Feuds 66

Chapter VI. The Religions Of China

Importance of the Study of the Religions of China. — The Threefold Division of their Religions by the Chinese. — The words Religion and Sect used in a Modified Sense. — Different Modes of Understanding and Applying the Chinese Classification. — The Plan adopted in this Book . 78

Chapter VII. Buddhism

Introduction of Buddhism into China. — Its reputed Founder.— Different Orders of Buddhist Divinities. — Peculiarities of Buddhism as it exists in different Countries. — Popular Traditions relating to Buddha. — Doctrines and Religious Rites of Buddhism. —Descriptions of Buddhist Temples.— Construction of Images. — Particular Description of Temples and Idol Worship at Hang-chow. — Buddhist Priests. — Organization of the Monasteries. — Hermits living in Huts or Caves. — Priests confined in Sealed Rooms or Cells. — Acquiring of Merit by Proxy. — Buddhist Nunneries 83

Chapter VIII. Buddhism — Continued

Worshipers in Buddhist Temples principally Women, and why. — Objects sought in Worship. — Mode of seeking a Response. — Making of Vows. — Procuring Drafts on Hades. — Forms of Worship. — Candles. — Incense. — Rosaries. — Social Intercourse and Gossip in the Temples. — Practice of •worshiping Books. — Passport for Hades. — Self-righteous Character of those who frequent Temples. — Striking Parallelism between Buddhism and Romanism Page 103

Chapter IX. Tauism

Lao-ts, the Founder of the Tauist Sect. — Origin of the word Tauism. — Lao-ts and Confucius contemporaneous. — Change and Deterioration in Tauism.*— Its character Materialistic. — Its Theory of the Universe. — The Five Elements. — Personification of Stars, and their Identity with some of the Gods. — Alchemy. — Elixir of Life. — Astrology. — Popular Belief respecting Lao-ts, and the Origin of Tauism. — Legend of Lu-tsu. — Gods of Thunder and Lightning. — The Goddess Tsu-mu. — The three Rulers. — The Dragon King. — His Likeness, how Obtained. — Inferior Dragons, and the "Dragon Examination." — Worship of the Dragons. — Description of the Tu-ti Pusah, or " God of the Earth." — Connection between Tauism and State Worship. — Tauist Temples, Idols, and Priests. — Object or Aim of the Tauist Devotee. — Means and bodily Exercises made use of. — Animals may Attain to the Condition of the Genii. — Worship of Women in Tauist Temples. — Sending Dispatches to the Spirit World. — Charms, Spells, and Magic. — Moral Essays connected with Tauism. — The Reason why Tauism is less Popular than Buddhism 114

Chapter X. National Religious Rites And Beliefs

These Rites originated in various Periods, and from various Sources. — They T are Regarded as Possessed of a Superior and Orthodox Character. — Ancestral Worship. — Worship of the Kitchen God. — State Worship, or that performed by Officers in the Capital and in the Provinces. — Worship of Confucius, and of the God of War, and the God of Literature. — Sacrifices to neglected Ghosts. — Welcoming of the Spring. — Worship of Deified Heroes 130

Chapter XI. Mutual Relations And Influences Of The Religious Systems Of China

Partial and Imperfect Character of the Knowledge derived from Natural Religion.— Moral more clearly Apprehended than Religious or Spiritual

12 CONTEXTS.

Truth. — Buddhism and Tauism attempt to Supply the Defects of Con* fncianism. — Special Characteristics and Relations of these Systems. — Religious Views of the People vague and chaotic. — The three Systems generally Regarded as Supplementary to each Other. — Approximate Estimate of the Number of Idol Temples in China. — Description of different Kinds of Sacrifices and Offerings. — The Doctrines and Practices of Idolatry perversions of great Truths. — Answer to the question, "Have the Chinese any idea of one Supreme Deity?" — General character of Chinese Idolatry as compared with that of other Countries. — Evidences of Discontent with Idolatry. — Encouraging Facts, and the Duty of the Church Page 148

Chapter XII

SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS RESPECTING SPIRITS, AND THE SCIENCE OF FUNG- SHWUY, OR GEOMANCY.

Sources of Superstitions relating to Spirits. — Character and Operations of Spirits called Yau-kwei. — Notions respecting the Disembodied Spirits of Men. — Familiar Spirits, and Communications with the Spirit World through a Medium. — Written Communications from Spirits, Spirit-rappings, etc. — Character, Importance, and Uses of the mysterious Science called Fung-shwuy. — It has its own Literature, and its Doctors, or Expounders.— General Prevalence and Influence of this Superstition. — Difficulties and Family Quarrels growing out of it. — An Incident illustrating the Existence and Importance of Fung-shwuy. — Fung-shwuy as applied to House-building. — Rearrangement of Houses sometimes made Necessary.— Complaints against Foreigners for Disregarding Fung-shwuy, and^ a Case in Illustration. — Means of attracting Good Luck. — Means of warding off Evil Influences. — Fung-shwuy as connected with the Construction of Canals and Bridges 1G2

Chapter XIII. Different Modes Of Divination

Importance of the Eight Diagrams. — Translation pf part of a Preface of the Chinese work " Source of True Divination." — Mode of Divining by Diagrams.— Mode of Divining by means of the Eight Characters. — An individual Case in Illustration. — Divination by Astrology. — Illustrative official Document. — Fortune-telling by the Use of Birds? Snakes, and Turtles. — Telling the Fortunes of past and future States of Existence. — Manner in which Failures are accounted for. — Physiognomy and Palm-

;f istry.— Choosing of ' ' Lucky Days." — Effects of being Born under certain Stars. — Divination bv Dreams 179

Chapter XIV. The Languages Of China

The want of Analogy between the Chinese and other* Languages. — Each "Word represented by a Separate Character. — The Language not Hieroglyphic.— The whole Number of Characters. — The Language Monosyllabic.— The Written Language unintelligible to the Ear, and not capable of being Used as a Spoken Language. — An Explanation of this Fact. — Tones and Aspirates. — Explanation of apparent Inconsistencies. — The Spoken Languages of China, and their Relations to the Written. — The Number of the Spoken Languages or Dialects, and the Extent to which they Differ. — In what these Differences consist. — More numerous in the South than in the North. — Description of the Mandarin or Court Dialect.— Chinese Mode of Printing. — How much Time does it require to learn the Chinese Language? — What Proportion of the Population can read? — Excellences and Defects of the Language Page l'Jl

Chapter XV. Benevolent Institutions Op China

The Origin of these Institutions, and the Distinction between Them and Those in Christian Lands. — Orphan Asylums. — Asylums for Old Men. — Asylums for Animals. — Institutions for the Relief of Widows. — Free Schools. — Chinese Dispensaries. — Institutions for Collecting old Paper, etc. — Society for the Suppression of Immoral Books. — Beggars. — A Benevolent Society embracing a variety of Objects. — Various Benefactions and Modes of securing Merit 213

Chapter XVI. The Moral Tract Literature Of China

The Literature of China various and extensive. — The Relation of Moral Tracts to the Chinese religious Systems. — Different kinds of Tracts. — Table of Contents of "Light in the Dark Dwelling." — Motives to which the Distribution of Tracts is due. — The Work is done by Individuals and not Societies. — These Works evidence the Teachings of Natural Religion, and the Necessity of a Superior Revelation. — Translations of " Ode on Emptiness," "Ode on Discontent," and Treatise on "Rewards and Punishments." — Tracts presented to Gods. — Their Influence on the People. — Our Encouragements and Discouragements in distributing Christian Tracts 226

Chapter XVII. Social Customs, Etc

The Family Tie strong in China. — Minute Distinctions of Relationships. — The Position of Women in China. — Chinese Politeness. — Hospitality. —

Costumes. — The Queue. — Small Feet of Women. — Chinese Houses. — Food and Mode of Eating. — The Use of Tea. — Chinese Wine. — The Use of Tobacco. — General Want of Cleanliness. — Betrothals and Marriages. — Polygamy. — Infanticide. — Slavery. — Funerals. — Coffins. — Graves and Grave-yards. — The extravagant and burdensome Expenses of Chinese Weddings and Funerals Page 237

Chapter XVIII. National Festivals, Customs, And Amusements

The Chinese Divisions of Time. — Number and Variety of Festivals and Anniversaries.— Welcoming of Spring. — The Customs and Festivals connected with the New Year. — The " Feast of Lanterns." — "Festival of the Tombs." — The Season of flying Kites. — Idolatrous Processions. — Chinese Theatres. — Their Connection with Idolatry. — How Conducted. — Character of the Plays and Actors. — Puppet Shows. — Gambling. — Public Fasts enjoined by official Proclamations. — Common Practice of using Obscene Language 257

Chapter XIX. General Estimate Of The Chinese Character And Civilization

Opinions generally Entertained of the Chinese. — The Impressions we have Made upon Them. — Difficulties in the way of Obtaining reliable Information in the Foreign Communities at the open Ports. — National Peculiarities of Chinese Temperament and Character. — Evidence of Intellectuality in the Chinese. — The Manner in which they are Regarded by other Eastern Nations. — They have taken the Lead in many of the Practical Arts. — Many of their Peculiarities due to Education rather than to Differences of Race. — Morality of the Chinese. — Opinions which we have mutually Entertained of each other in this Respect, and the Reasons for Them. — A Look at ourselves through Chinese Glasses. — Facts illustrating the better side of Chinese Character. — The injurious Effects apprehended by some from speaking well of a Heathen People 275

Chapter XX. Intercourse Of Western Nations With China

Isolation. — Antiquity and Chronology. — Early Reference to China in Greek and Roman History. — A Jewish Colony in Kai-fung-foo. — The Nestorians and their Labors. — Marco Polo. — Early Romish Missions. — First War with England, and the Opening of the Five Treaty Ports in 1842. — Events which led to the last War with England and France, and to the Treaties which are now in force. — Our present Relations . . . 293

Chapter XXI. Missionary Life In China

A Sea-voyage a good Preparation for Missionary Life. — First Impressions on Shore. — Novelty succeeded by Monotony. — Longing for Home. — Missionary Houses, Mode of Living, Salaries, Servants, etc. — Importance of Female Laborers. — Married and Unmarried Missionaries. — The Study of the Language with a Native Teacher. — A Missionary may be Useful from the very first. — Housekeeping and a Missionary's Home as an important Centre of Influence. — Chapels and Chapel Preaching. — Itinerations in the Interior. — The great Difficulty of communicating Christian Truth in a Heathen Language. — Distribution of Tracts, and the Manner in which they are received. — The natural Effect of a correct Apprehension of the true Character of the Gospel Page 314

Chapter XXII. Different Methods And Agencies Employed In Missionary Work

The great Mission of the Christian Church. — The Character of the Work the same now as in the Times of the Apostles. — Advantages and Disadvantages peculiar to different Times. — Auxiliary and preparatory Agencies. — The Work of the Medical Missionary. — The Scripture Idea of Preaching. — The Question of adopting the native Costume. — The Importance of Mission Schools. — Error of applying Principles drawn from one Field to another and different one. — Objections to English Schools as Missionary Agencies. — The Use of the Press. — Character and Use of Tracts. — The Sphere of the Bible in the Work of Missions. — The Importance of feeding the Flock. — The Necessity of training Native Christians to Habits of Activity and Independence. — The Importance of raising up and training a Native Ministry, and the Difficulties attending this Work in China 33G

Chapter XXIII. Results Of Missionary Work

Unfavorable Reports respecting the Work of Missionaries, and their injurious Effects. — The Unreliableness of these Reports, and the Manner in which they originate. — The true Character of the Missionary Work, and the Difficulties attending it. — Detailed and Statistical Accounts of different Mission Stations not attempted. — Much has been accomplished in necessary Preparation for the direct Work of preaching the Gospel. — Effects produced by the general Diffusion of Christian Truth among the Masses. — Ripe Fruits. — The Classes from which the first Converts are usually drawn, and the Means by which they are brought into the Church. — Illustrative Experiences of Individuals and Families. — The

1«J CONTENTS.

Influence of Native Converts of both Sexes in building up Native Churches. — The Work of Native Preachers in the Out-stations. — General Statistics of the Results of Missions in China. — Special Reference to the Growth of Churches at Ningpo and in the Ports recently opened. — Remarkable Work in Lao-ling Page 356

Chapter XXIV. Character And Experiences Of Native Christians And Inquirers

Comparative Absence of pungent Convictions of Sin in Chinese Converts, and a Reason for it: — The Apathy of the Chinese with Respect to Death is removed by a Knowledge of Christianity. — Experience of Teacher Du. — Disadvantages and Compensations in the Condition of Chinese Christians. — Their Simplicity of Faith. — Their Views of Prayer. — Going up into a Mountain to pray. — Mercenary Inquirers. — "Stony-ground" Hearers. — Disappointed Expectations. — The Buddhist Devotee of Tsi-hia. — The Case of one who was almost persuaded to be a Christian. — Temptations and Defections of Church Members. — Differences and Estrangements among Christians. — Temptations overruled for Good. — Experience of two Native Preachers. — Difference of Views with Reference to the Admission of Inquirers to full Church Membership.— Cases of Discipline, and their comparative Frequency. — Trials and Temptations of Native Christians. — Eating Food offered to Idols. — Complicity with Idol Worship in other Ways. — Difficulties connected with the strict Observance of the Sabbath. — Experience of Deo-vu Ah-san. — Standard of Sabbath Observance in our Out-stations. — The History and Character of Jun-kao 379

Chapter XXV. Roman Catholic Missions In China

The Manner in which the early Missionaries of Rome gained an Entrance into the Chinese Empire. — Their Compromise of the Truth, and the Controversies and Dissensions between different Religious Orders. — Secular Employments. — The Mode of prosecuting their Missionary Work. — Character of the Missionaries. — Statistics of Missionary Results. — Their Improvement of the Advantages of the late Treaties. — Character of the Native Christians. — A Reference to the Religious Literature of the Church of Rome in China. — The Excellences and Defects of the System. — Its probable Influence on the Future of the Empire 406

Chapter XXVI. The Tai-ping Rebellion

The Interest which has been felt by Western Nations in the Tai-ping Rebellion.— Early Life of Hung-sew-tswen. — He receives the Bible and Tracts from Missionaries. — His Sickness and fancied Revelations. — His

Attention is directed anew to the Christian Books. — He constructs from them a new System of Religion, commences propagating it, and gains many Converts. — The Steps by which the Adherents of this corrupt Form of Christianity became an Insurgent Army. — The long Struggle for Empire, and the final Defeat and Overthrow of the Tai-ping Rebellion Page 417

Chapter XXVII. Present Condition And Prospects Of The Chinese Empire

The Present of China a Period of Transition. — Her Aversion to Change. — Various Causes conspiring to introduce a new Order of Things. — General Principle of Development and Decline. — The History of China a Succession of Dynasties. — Local Insurrections and Rebellions. — Influences brought to bear upon China from foreign Lands. — Wars with England and France. — The necessary Effect of a Knowledge of the Modern Arts and Sciences, and of Christianity. — The Influence upon China of the Chinese who return Home from California. — The Government adopts "Western Rules of International Law. — Chinese Youths studying Foreign Languages with a View to being Interpreters. — The Policy of the Empire principally influenced by the Exigencies of her present Position, and the Advice of Foreign Ministers and Employes in Pekin. — A University for teaching the Modern Sciences has been established. — The Origin, Character, and Results of the Chinese Embassy. — The Party of Progress, and the Objects for which they are striving. — The present Status of Missionaries. — China irrevocably committed to Reform and Progress . . . . , 428

Conclusion

The Presence and Agency of Christ among the Nations. — He rules the World in the Interest of the Church. — Different Influences conspire to prepare the Way for the Establishment of His spiritual Kingdom. — The Responsibility of the Church in the present Juncture. — Evidences of low and unscriptural Views with Regard to Missions. — The true Standard of Christian Duty 444

ILL USTRATIONS.

PAGE

map of CHINA To face page 21

PART OF THE WALL OF PEKIN 25

WU-CHANG 30

CANAL SCENE NEAR SOO-CHOW 32

TRADING JUNK 34

MODE OF CARRYING BURDENS BY ONE PERSON 35

TWO MEN CARRYING A PRESENT OF A LARGE JAR OF SPIRITS 36

GENTLEMAN RIDING IN A SEDAN, WITH SERVANT ON FOOT 36

CART DRAWN BY BULLOCKS, OR MULES, OR HORSES, OR BY THESE

THREE DIFFERENT ANIMALS TOGETHER 39

IRRIGATION BY MEANS OF AN ENDLESS CHAIN-PUMP. 4L

FISHING WITH CORMORANTS 43

FAC-SIMILE OF CASH COINED BY THE LAST EMPEROR, HIEN-FUNG 44

FAC-SIMILE OF ANCIENT COIN, COINED DURING THE HAN DYNASTY 45

LITERARY UNDER-GRADUATE, OR STUDENT 57

MILITARY CANDIDATES COMPETING WITH BOW AND ARROW 61

A CHINESE CIVIL OFFICER IN FULL DRESS CO

GATEWAY OF BUDDHIST TEMPLE NEAR CANTON 87

THE THREE PRECIOUS ONES 90

A DEPARTMENT OF THE BUDDHISTIC HELL 91

PAGODA 92

BUDDHIST PRIEST 98

BUDDHIST NUN WITH CAP AND ROSARY 101

CASTING LOTS 104

LUE-KUNG, GOD OF THUNDER 119

THE THREE PURE ONES * 120

ANCESTRAL TABLET REPRESENTING ONE PERSON 131

GOD OF THE KITCHEN 134

TRADITIONAL LIKENESS OF CONFUCIUS 139

KWAN-TI, CHINESE GOD OF WAR 140

PART OF A PROCESSION IN HONOR OF SPRING, IN WHICH A MOCK BUF- FALO IS CARRIED THROUGH THE STREETS 142

20 ILLUSTRATIONS.

TAGE

WHITING WITH A FORKED PEN AN ORACLE ON SAND 168

FORTUNE-TELLING BY MEANS OF A BIRD AND SLIPS OF PAPER 189

DIFFERENT STYLES OF WRITING AND PRINTING CHINESE CHARACTERS. 207 HONORARY STONE PORTAL TO THE MEMORY OF VIRTUOUS AND FILIAL

WIDOWS 217

MAN WITH BASKETS GATHERING LETTEREdfc>APER 219

LARGE OR NATURAL-FOOTED WOMAN AT FU-CHOW ^. 242

APPEARANCE OF A SMALL SHOE ON THE FOOT 243

PART OF A BRIDAL PROCESSION EN ROUTE TO THE HOUSE OF THE

BRIDEGROOM ON THE WEDDING-DAY 248

BRIDE AND BRIDEGROOM WORSHIPING THE TABLETS OF HIS DECEASED

ANCESTORS 250

PREPARATIONS FOR THE NEW YEAR ; 260

HAPPINESS 263

MANOEUVRING THE DRAGON 264

BOAT CARRIED IN PROCESSION ON MEN'S SHOULDERS 267

WEARING THE CANGUE AS A TOKEN OF GRATITUDE 268

BOY DRESSED LIKE A FEMALE IN ACTING A THEATRICAL PLAY 272

CAPTURE OF THE PEIHO FORTS 303

KAVEILIANG, FIRST IMPERIAL COMMISSIONER 306

IIWASHANA, SECOND " " 307

SIGNING OF THE TREATY OF TIEN-TSIN 311

TRINCE KUNG 441

Sinim."

The names which the Chinese use in speaking of themselves are various. The most common one is Chung ITivoh,

^in

China and the Chinese.

Chapter I. General View Of The Chinese Empire

The word China not Known by the Chinese. — The Names they Use to Designate their Country. — General Resemblance of China to the United States : in Position, Form, Climate, Productions, Natural and Artificial Divisions, and in Area. — Description of the Walled Cities of China. — The Population of the Empire. — Peculiarities of Climate, and their Connection with the Monsoons. — Rivers and Natural Scenery.

The word China is at present unknown in the empire which we call by that name. It was no donbt introduced in the West from the nations of Central Asia, who in speaking of the Chinese use the terms Jin, Chin, Sin, Sinae, and Sinistse. These names were probably derived from the powerful Tsin family, which held sway over the north-western part of China as early as 770 b.c. ; and obtained the government of the whole empire 250 years b.c. The early prominence of this name in that part of the country which was first reached by the routes of Western traders strongly confirms the view now generally adopted by commentators, that the Chinese are specifically referred to in the forty-ninth chapter of Isaiah — " Behold, these shall come from far ; anft lo, these from the North and from the West: and these from the land of Sinim."

The names which the Chinese use in speaking of themselves are various. The most common one is Chung ITiooh,

" Middle Kingdom ;" the term " middle " signifying not only that they are the geographical centre of the world, but also the centre of light and civilization. Another name is Chung Hica-Kicoh — " Middle Flowery Kingdom ;" " flowery " presenting the idea of beautiful, cultivated, refined. The terms Tkn-Hwa-Kwoh and Tien- Chao — " Heavenly Flowery Kingdom," and "Heavenly Dynasty" — are sometimes used, the word "heavenly" presenting the Chinese idea that the empire is established by the authority of heaven, and that the Emperor rules by divine right. This title has given rise to the contemptuous epithet applied to this race by Europeans — "The Celestials." They also speak of themselves as "Tienhia " — " Under Heaven " — that is, " the world." The particular title of the reigning dynasty is often used, as at present Ta- Tsing-Kwoli, the " Kingdom of the Great Tsin Dynasty."

In giving a correct general idea of China to Western nations, I can not, perhaps, do better than to institute a comparison between it and the United States, to which it bears a striking resemblance. It occupies the same position in the Eastern Hemisphere that the United States does in the Western. Its line of sea-coast on the Pacific resembles that of the United States on the Atlantic, not only in length but also in contour. Being found within almost the same parallels of latitude, it embraces the same varieties of climate and productions. A river as grand as the Mississippi, flowing east, divides the empire into two nearly equal parts, which are often designated as " North of the River," and " South of the River." It passes through an immense and fertile valley, and is supplied by numerous tributaries having their rise in mountain ranges on either side, and also in the Himalayas on the west.

The area of China proper is about the same as that of the organized states of the American Union. The resemblance holds also in the artificial divisions. While our country is divided into more than thirty states, China is divided into eighteen provinces ; this division furnishing still another name

RESEMBLANCE TO THE UNITED STATES. 23

for the empire, in common use, Shih-pah-seiig — " The Eighteen Provinces." These provinces are on an average about twice as large as our states. As our states are divided into counties, so each province has about ten divisions, called Fa ; and eacli Fa is again divided into about an equal number of Illen. These divisions and subdivisions of the provinces are generally translated in English departments, or prefectures, and districts. In this work I shall use the Chinese terms and their English equivalents interchangeably. The-above-mentioned divisions and subdivisions are much larger than our corresponding counties and townships. While the empire has its capital at Pekin, so each province, Fu and Hien, has its capital or seat of civil power, in which the officers exercising jurisdiction over it reside. While our national name, United States, covers not only the states, but the comparatively sparsely-populated territories, so the Chinese Empire includes, in addition to the eighteen provinces, or China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Sungaria, Eastern Turkistan, Koko-nor, and Thibet. The most of these territories belonged originally to the present Tartar rulers of China, and after the subjugation of the eighteen provinces were united with them in the same empire. The whole circumference of the empire is about 12,000 miles, and the whole area about 5,000,000 of square miles — nearly twice that of the United States, exclusive of the lately-acquired Russian Possessions. When we speak of China without specifications we refer to the eighteen provinces exclusively, which include the vast proportion of the population, wealth, and intelligence of the empire.

Here the parallel between the United States and China ceases, and in nearly every point of comparison we have a decided contrast. The capitals of the different divisions of the empire are all walled cities. These form a striking feature of the country. There are important distinctions between the cities.of the third class, most of which are designated by the character Hien, a few by the character Oheo, and a few by the character Ting, which need not here be particularly described. Though varying considerably in size, these different cities present nearly the same uniform appearance. They are surrounded by walls from twenty to thirty-live feet in height, and are entered by large arched gateways, which open into the principal streets, and are shut and barred at night. These walls are from twenty to twenty-five feet thick at the base, and somewhat narrower at the top. The outside is of solid masonry from two to four feet thick, built of hewn stone, or bricks backed with earth, broken tiles, etc. There is generally a lighter stone facing on the inside. The outside is surmounted by a parapet with embrasures, generally built of brick. The circumferences of the provincial cities vary from eight to fifteen English miles ; those of the Fu cities from four to ten ; and those of the Hien cities from two or three to five. Some of the larger and more important cities contain a smaller one, with its separate walls, enclosed within the larger outside wall. This is the Tartar or military city. It is occupied exclusively by Tartars with their families, forming a colony or garrison, and numbering generally a few tens of thousands, including military officers ^f different grades. In times of insurrection and rebellion the Emperor depends principally upon these Tartar colonies to hold possession of the cities where they are stationed. In such emergencies the inhabitants of these enclosed Tartar cities, knowing that their lives and the lives of their families are at stake, sometimes defend themselves with great desperation.