Textiles and clothing

Front matter

Historic, Archive Document

Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

LIBRARY

Preface

This book has been written primarily to meet a need arising from the introduction of the study of textiles into the curriculum of the high school. The aim has been, therefore, to present the subject matter in a form sufficiently simple and interesting to be grasped readily by the high school student, without sacrificing essential facts. It has not seemed desirable to explain in detail the mechanism of the various machines used in modern textile industries, but rather to show the student that the fundamental principles of textile manufacture found in the simple machines of primitive times are unchanged in the highl}^ developed and complicated machinerj^ of to-day. Minor emphasis has been given to certain necessarily technical paragraphs by printing these in type of a smaller size than that used for the body of the text.

The authors emphasize the finished products and their relation to the household. Chapters have been introduced on the purchase, testing and economical use of textile material, with the hope of pointing the way to a concrete and practical application of the study of textiles. The woman of to-day can no longer afford to be untrained in this respect, and because of present economic conditions a definite obligation is laid upon her to understand the nature and real worth of clothing material and house furnishings, in order to buy with judgment and economy. The girl in high school has the opportunity to acquire this knowledge, which will function in her later life. We are gradually breaking away from the formal teaching of sewing as an isolated subject ;

vi

PREFACE the relation of sewing to textiles and clothing is now emphasized from the economic and social side, as well as the practical.

It is hoped that the student may be encouraged to collect samples of representative materials and mount them either in a book or on filing cards prepared for the purpose. These samples should be classij&ed and made of service by the addition of adequate data.

Although, as has been said, this book is designed principally to meet the needs of high school students, and through them, of homemakers, it may be of service to salespeople and teachers looking for reference material on textiles for their students.

Chapter I

Source and Composition of Textile Fibers, 2 — Classification, 4 — General Characteristics, 4 — Microscopic Appearance, 6 — Minor Vegetable Fibers 11.

CHAPTER II Spinning and Weaving

A. Early Methods of Spinning and Weaving. Early Methods of Spinning, 15 — Early Methods of Weaving, 22.

B. The Industrial Revolution. Its Place in History, 30 — The Great Inventions, 31 — The Textile Industry in the United States, 36 — Results of the Factory System, 36.

C. Present Methods of Spinning and Weaving. Modern Spinning Frames, 38 — Modern Weaving, 39.

Chapter III

A. Woven Fabrics. Structural Design, 46 — Surface Design, 53.

B. Knitted Fabrics. History of Knitting, 56 — Knitting Machinery, 56 — Growth of Knitting Industry, 57 — Knitted Products, 57.

CHAPTER IV Cotton

Origin of Cotton, 60 — The Cotton Plant, 60 — Classification of Cotton, 62 — Countries raising Cotton, 64 — Cultivation of Cotton, 64 — Marketing of Cotton, 72 — Manufacture, 73 — Finishing Processes, 76 — Finished Products, 80 — Table of Materials, 92-99.

VUl

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter V Page

Flax

History and Antiquity of Linen, 101 — Cultivation, 101

— Processes of Separating Fiber, 104 — Further Cleaning Processes, 109 — Manufacture, 111 — Finishing, 112 — Countries Producing Flax, 114 — Finished Product, 116 — Table of Materials, 120-121.

CHAPTER VI Wool 123

Animals Furnishing Wool, 124 — Countries Producing Wool, 126 — Production of Wool, 127 — Treatment in Factory, 129 — Distinction between Woolens and Worsted, 133

— Preparation of Yarn, 133 — Finishing Processes, 136 — Use of Wool Substitutes, 139 — Finished Products, 141 — Table of Materials, 148-153.

A. Natural Silk. Early History of Silk Culture, 155 — Present Status, 157 — Life of the Silkworm, 157 — Wild Silks, 159 — Raw Silk, 161 — Processes of Manufacture, 164 — Waste Silk, 171 — Finished Products, 172.

B. Artificial Silk. Varieties of Artificial Silk, 175 — Properties, 176 — Uses, 176 — Production, 176 — Other Silk Substitutes, 176 — Table of Materials, 178-183.

Why Textile Testing is Necessary, 184 — Nature of Tests, 186 — Recording the Tests, 186 — Analysis of Fabrics, 183 — Removal of Dressing, 198 — Weighting of Silk, 200 — Fastness of Dye, 201 — Shrinkage, 202.

CHAPTER IX

Value of Care for Clothing, 205 — Care of Clothing a Duty, 206 — General Care of Clothing, 206 — Special Care of Clothing, 211 — Remodehng and Other Economies, 221.

Chapter X Page

A. Economics. Guidance in Dress, 227 — The Cost of Clothing, 232 — Ready-made and Home-made Garments, 233 — Economics of Textile Production, 235 — The Consumer's Relation to the Producer, 235 — Ethics of Shopping, 239 — Bad Shopping Habits, 239 — Good Shopping Habits, 243.

B. Hygiene of Dress. Importance of Dress Hygiene, 244 — Clothing and Body Heat, 244 — Clothing and Perspiration, 249 — Clothing and a Clean Body, 249 — Clothing and an Unrestricted Body, 250.

Bibliography 253

Glossary 255

Index 261

CHAPTER I THE TEXTILE FIBERS Source and composition of textile fibers

Vegetable fibers

Animal fibers Classification

Vegetable fibers

Animal fibers

Mineral and artificial fibers General characteristics Microscopic appearance

Mercerized cotton Flax

Wool and hair Regenerated wool Silk

Wild or Tussah silk Artificial silk Minor vegetable fibers Jute Hemp Ramie Pineappla Coir Kapok

If we look about us at the many kinds of fabrics used in our homes and for our clothing, or if we think of the infinite

B 1 variety of textile goods to which most of the space in our great department stores is given, we wonder where so much material comes from. Certainly these hundreds of products must mean many sources. How surprising it is to discover that, in the main, only four groups of living things — the cotton and flax, the sheep and the silkworm — supply the world yearly with its textile materials. What wonderful ingenuity man has shown in manufacturing from these few sources fabrics simple and elaborate, cheap and priceless — from six-cent cheesecloth to Gobelin tapestries and the rugs from Eastern looms ! To trace the steps which convert textile fibers into fabrics is a study full of interest.

Source and composition of textile fibers. — Let us begin our study with the fibers, those tiny products of plant or animal life which are the basis of spun and woven material.

Vegetable fibers. — The principal fiber plants are cotton and flax. Cotton is the fiber of almost universal utility and enters into nine-tenths of the textile material of everyday use. Flax is the fiber of luxury. It is called linen when made into the thread or fabric.

Cotton pnd flax fibers are quite dissimilar in manner of growth and appearance. The cotton plant is a bush}^ shrub. Its seeds are inclosed in round pods or bolls. Each seed is covered with white or creamy hairs which grow from its outer coat. These are the cotton fibers. When the time comes for the bolls to burst open, the ripe cotton looks Uke masses of snow among the green leaves. Those fibers which, like cotton, grow from the skin covering of seeds are called seed hairs.

Flax is not a seed hair, but a part of the stem of the flax plant. Flax seeds Are sown thickly, in order that the plants may grow too closely for branching. This gives a long, straight stem and fibers to correspond. A branching shrub, like cotton, would not yield long fibers. The flax fibers are found just under the bark of the stem, and are as long as the height of the plant will allow.

The flax fiber is made up of a series of tiny cells, while the cotton fiber is composed of a single cell.

In composition, cotton is a pure form of cellulose, a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, belong-

FTom Brooks' Cotton, Courtesy American School of Correspondence Fig. 1. — Cotton on the Seed, ing to the group of compounds in which starches and wood are found. Flax is not naturally so pure. The stem of the flax plant contains woody tissue or lignoceUulose, and the fiber must be separated from this b}^ many processes. In its purified form, as fine or hnen, it is chemically the same as cotton.

Animal fibers. — The fleece of sheep and goats furnishes wool and hair fibers, and through the spinnerets of the silkworm is produced the long, lustrous silk filament. Since these are of animal origin, they contain nitrogen, an element common to animal bodies, in addition to the elements found in cotton and linen. The presence of nitrogen gives one means of distinguishing animal fibers from vegetable. When wool and silk burn, part of the odor of burning is caused by the formation of ammonia, a nitrogenous compound. No ammonia, but an odor of burning wood, is noticed when cotton and linen burn.

Between wool and silk there is a further difference in composition. Wool contains a great deal of sulphur, and this also adds to its unpleasant odor when burned. Silk has no sulphur.

Wool and silk are entirely different in structure. The wool fiber is the most interesting of all because of its complicated structure. Silk, on the other hand, is called a structureless filament, being without cells or any separation of parts.

Hair fibers are similar to wool in structure. In the trade, fibers from sheep are called wool, and from goats, hair.

Classification. — A more complete classification of textile fibers, according to source, is as follows :

Vegetable fibers: Cotton, flax or linen, and the minor fibers jute, hemp, ramie, pineapple, kapok, coir.

Animal fibers : Wool and hair, silk.

Mineral and artificial fibers : Artificial silk, metalUc threads, asbestos.

General characteristics. — Whatever the source, the fibers used for textile purposes must have length, strength and pliability sufficient to be spun into a continuous thread which can be woven. The fibers named above answer these requirements in differing degrees.

Cotton is the shortest fiber, running from | inch or J inch to 2 inches in length. There would be great difliculty in spinning cotton of the shortest staple were it not for its pliabihty and a natural twist in the fiber, only visible under the microscope. The length of the flax fiber is determined by the height of the plant and the preparation ; it may be from 12 inches to 36 inches. Wool lends itself well to the spinning process. The staple may be as short as 1 or 2 inches, but it averages from 4 to 10 inches, and much of it is naturally curly or crimpy. Hair fibers are straighter and in some cases less pliable, but msLy reach a length of 20 inches. Silk far outranks all other fibers in length. Its wonderful filament may be from 400 to 1300 yards long. Imagine a single cocoon unwinding to three times the length of the river span of the Brooklyn Bridge, or from six to eight times the height of the Washington Monument. Moreover, although the diameter of the silk filament averages less than that of the other fibers, in proportion to its size its strength is greatest of all.

When we compare the physical properties of the fibers, we must speak of averages. There are wdde variations. A general tabulation like the following is useful, if this is kept in mind :

Length. — Silk fibers are the longest ; then flax, wool, cotton in descending order of length.

Strength. — Silk is strongest in proportion to diameter ; then flax, then cotton, and the weakest is wool.

Diameter. — Silk and cotton are uniformly finest in diameter. Flax and wool vary greatly.

Elasticity. — Wool is most elastic, followed by silk, cotton, linen in the order named.

Luster. — Artificial silk, silk, mercerized cotton, Hnen, wool, cotton.

Capacity for holding moisture. — Wool holds 12 per cent to 15 per cent of its weight under ordinary conditions, 30 per cent to 50 per cent in presence of excess moisture. Silk

10 per cent or 11 per cent in ordinary atmosphere, up to about 40 per cent under artificial conditions. Cotton and Unen, 7 per cent to 12 per cent in ordinary conditions. Linen is more easily permeable by air and moisture than cotton, on account of its coarser pores, but loses its moisture much more rapidly.

Heat conductivity. — Linen is the best conductor of heat, by reason of the rapid evaporation of moisture from its surface. Cotton has 15 per cent to 30 per cent more heat protection than linen, in fabrics of equal weave and thickness. Silk and wool are both non-conductors ; the latter retains body heat somewhat more than silk, because of the air-holding spaces in the fibers, and because of slower evaporation.

Cleanliness. — Silk and linen, by reason of their smooth surface, are the cleanest textiles. Investigators have shown that under equal conditions cotton collects about three times as much surface dirt as linen, with a corresponding increase in bacteria on garments worn next the skin. Wool collects the greatest amount of dust, dirt and bacteria, and is laundered with the most difficulty.

Microscopic appearance. — Every student of textiles should know the microscopic appearance of the principal fibers, and should use the microscope when possible as an aid in determining the kind and quality of the fibers in a fabric. Each fiber shows under the microscope structural markings, which in many cases are its best identification. This is especially true in determining the purity of linen weaves.

The high power of an ordinary compound microscope is essential. Under the low power we cannot appreciate the structure of a fine wool fiber, for example, which may be only 0.0005 inch in diameter, and have 4800 scales per inch of length.

In the following pages, emphasis is placed on the typical appearance only of the principal fibers. For more detailed study, the student is referred to the bibliography at the end of the book.

Cotton. — Seen under the microscope, the typical cotton fiber resembles a spirally twisted ribbon with thickened edges. The twist may not be continuous in one direction, nor of regular occurrence. The fiber is a single cell; the edges indicate the thickness of the cell wall. The flattened portion between the edges marks the position of the interior canal or lumen, which occupies about two-thirds the breadth of the fiber. Before the cotton reached maturity, this lumen was filled with nutriment for the cell, and the fiber was cylindrical. When fully ripe, the lumen contents dried or were absorbed, and the fiber shrank and collapsed into its flat, twisted form. It is generally conceded that the stronger and more frequent the twist, the better the quality of the fiber. Dead or unripe fibers do not show twist or lumen to any extent, but are straight, thin and transparent.

Mercerized cotton. — (See Chap. IV.) The process of mercerizing with strong caustic alkali changes the chemical and physical nature of the cotton fiber. As regards the latter, the fiber loses its cuticle and swells to a cylindrical form. The twist almost or wholly disappears. The body of the fiber is firm but translucent. All these changes greatly increase the luster, especially if the mercerizing is done under tension. It rarely happens that all the fibers of a given lot are equally mercerized ; the presence of an occasional twist is conclusive that the fibers in question are

Fig. 2. — Cotton Fibers.

Fig. 3. — Mercerized Cotton.

mercerized cotton, where there is any possibility, by reason of form and luster, of confusing them with silk. It is a safe rule, in using the microscope, to study any fiber throughout its entire length.

Flax. — The purified flax or linen filament, as we ordinarily see it under the microscope, is straight, cylindrical, and has a lumen which shows as a narrow line. The end of the fiber is pointed . The distinguishing marks are frequent transverse lines or fissures, sometimes resembhng the nodes or joints of the bamboo.

There is much variation in the appearance and occurrence of these, and they may at first escape the eye of the beginner. The linen fiber requires more careful study than perhaps any other. Structurally, the fiber is composed of a series of cells of varying lengths,

but averaging one inch.

Wool and hair. — These fibers are alike in their main structure, but differ in outward appearance.

Three main divisions of the fiber may be made :

1. Epidermal Scales. — The epidermal scales, horny and transparent, overlap like the scales of a fish. This is the most striking characteristic of the wool, but not the hair, fiber. In some fine

wools, a single set of scales encircles the fiber like a series of cusps or funnels ; in most varieties two or more scales make up the circumference. The lower ends of the scales are

Fig. 4. — Flax Fibers.

Fig. 5. — Wool Fibers.

fastened to the body of the fiber ; the upper ends are often so loosely attached that they give a serrated or saw-toothed structure to the fiber edge. In the finer wools the scale

edges are straight, in coarser wools they are often serrated or wavy. The presence of these overlapping scales affects the manufacture, dyeing and home treatment of woolen materials.

For example, heat and moisture, acids or alkalies soften the walls of the fiber and cause the scales to open outward. If they are loosel}^ attached, as in wool, they then interlock with those of contiguous fibers, and under the influence of fall in temperature, friction or pressure the interlocking becomes a permanent shrinldng and felting. Short wools, such as merino, are crimpy and have a great number of serrations per inch, therefore they felt and shrink to a marked degree. Medium wools, such as crossbred, have more luster, fewer serrations, and less felting power. Long wools, e.g.

Lincoln, and hair, such as mohair from the Angora goat, and alpaca from the alpaca goat, are straight, lustrous, and do not felt. This is because the scales are closely joined to the body of the fiber, so much so that they are usually invisible in hair fibers, a fact which differentiates these from wool.

2. Cortical Region. — • The cortical region is the main fiber body. It is made up of spindle-shaped cells, which

Fig. 6. — Hair Fibers.

give strength, elasticity and pliability to the fiber. Under the microscope this region is indicated by numbers of small, dark, longitudinal lines which can be seen through the epidermal scales.

3. Medulla. — The medulla is the central canal. Frequently it is not visible, especially in fine wools. In coarse wools and often in hair fibers it appears in varying aspects — colors. Good grades of shoddy are not different in appearance and quality from some wool directly from the fleece.

Silk. — Raw silk, as it comes from the spinnerets of the silkworm, is in the form of a double filament, held together by a gummy substance called sericin. It is rough, dull and translucent. As we see it in most dress materials, it has been freed from the gum by scouring or boiling off, and is then a single, lustrous, transparent filament. It has no apparent structure, but looks smooth, fine and evenly cylindrical.

Wild or Tussah silk. — The name Tussah is generally applied to all varieties of this silk, which is produced by several kinds of silkworms differing from those which make the cultivated silk. Wild silk is always darker in color than as a narrow or a broad line, continuous or broken, sometimes containing irregular dark masses of pigment or other material.

Regenerated wool. — (See Chap.

VI.) Wool of this kind, recovered from cast-off clothing or other sources, is called shoddy.

The microscope may show the presence of shoddy when it is characterized by broken or missing scales, split fibers, torn ends, and fibers of different sources and the cultivated. The microscope shows broad thick fibers, flattened in form, and characterized by distinct longitudinal striations. Often there are cross markings, caused by one filament pressing on another before the cocoon mass has hardened. The striations are held to indicate that the fiber is composed of minute filaments. The diameter of wild silk is frequently two or three times as great as that of the cultivated.

Artificial silk. — (See Chap.

VII.) There are several varieties of these silks on the market, each characterized by shght microscopic differences. The viscose silk, most often seen in this countr}^, show^s a straight, exceedingly glossy filament, resembhng a glass r od . The diameter is unif orm throughout . There are as a rule lengthmse lines, straight and regular, covering

the surface of the fiber, and occasionally small bubbles are seen.

Minor vegetable fibers. — Jute, hemp, ramie, pineapple fiber, coir and kapok are the principal fibers in this class.

Jute is a bast fiber from several species of a maUow, sometimes called Jew's mallow, native to India. It is also cultivated by the Chinese and Malays, and has been introduced into

jTiG. 9. Artificial Silk America along the Gulf coast. It is

fine, lustrous, and soft, but not strong, especially when wet. When exposed to dampness it deteriorates rapidly. The fiber length averages 4 to 7 feet. Jute is used for bagging, burlaps, cheap twine, binding thread, and frequently in pile upholstery fabrics and as a backing for carpets and rugs.

Hemp. — There are thirty or more plants, similar in appearance and properties, and widely distributed geographically, that bear the name of hemp. Common hemp is a bast fiber from Cannabis saliva. It is grown extensively in Russia, Poland, Italy and the United States. . Italian hemp is the finest grade in our markets. In growth and preparation hemp is similar to flax, and under the microscope they are not dissimilar. The fiber is lustrous, stronger than jute, and is not weakened by continued wetting. Coarse hempen fibers are used for sailcloth, canvas, ropes, hammocks and carpets, and in some upholstery material. Fine hemp may take the place of flax in all weaves except the finest linens. In the Philippines fine grades of Manila hemp are used for dress materials.

Ramie is a bast fiber obtained from the stingless nettle Boehmeria tenacissima. It grows in temperate climates, and in this respect is different from a similar fiber (China grass, from Boehmeria nivea) which thrives best in tropical or semi-tropical countries. There is practically no difference between the fibers in appearance or properties. Ramie is a strong fiber, as white as bleached cotton, and more lustrous than flax. It does not easily spin a fine yarn, although beautiful and delicate materials are made from it in China and India. It has been used with cotton, silk and wool in woven fabrics, and it produces a fine, close paper, used especially for bank notes. As a rule, ramie or China grass fabrics are characterized by harshness and inelasticity. The microscope shows fibers of great variation in diameter, from the fineness of silk to a breadth exceeding that of other fibers ; the typical appearance is a broad, flat fiber with rough markings. In the United States the cultivation of ramie has not been commercially successful.

Pineapple fiber is a bast fiber from the leaves of the pineapple plant. It makes the fine Jusi and Pina cloth of the Philippines.

Coir is a fiber resembling horsehair in texture, prepared principally from the husk of the coconut. The color is cinnamon brown. It is strong and elastic, and finds a use in mattings, doormats, cordage and sailcloth.

Kapok, a variety of Bombax cotton, comes from the white cotton tree, which grows in tropical countries such as Ceylon, India and parts of South America and Africa. Dutch merchants trading with Java introduced kapok and gave it its name. The fiber is weak, short, silky, and of so light a specific gravity that it is sometimes used for life preservers. Mattresses and pillows are also stuffed with it, but it is not always satisfactory for this purpose, as the fibers are brittle, and liable to break into fine bits that sift through the covering.

Fibers called vegetable silk, having a limited use because of their brittle nature, are akin to kapok. They are obtained from the seed pods of the millrvveed, from the "silk-cotton" tree of the tropics and from the corkwood tree of the West Indies and Central America.

1. What are the main sources of textile material?

2. What constitutes a textile fiber?

3. Compare the two principal vegetable fibers as to manner of growth and physical properties.

4. Give the peculiar fitness of each to be used for spun and woven material.

5. State several reasons why linen is so valuable in Red Cross work.

6. What are the disadvantages of cotton toweling?

7. How do the animal fibers differ from the vegetable fibers in composition ? How do wool and silk differ ? Compare these two fibers as to their physical qualities.

8. By what distinct characteristics are cotton, linen, wool and silk recognized under the microscope ?

9. Describe the structure of the wool fiber.

10. Why does wool shrink? What are the best and the worst possible ways of washing a sweater?

11. What is meant by shoddy? May a shoddy suit be of good quality ?

12. Considering the heat conduction of wool and linen and their capacity for holding moisture, state the conditions under which each would be suitably used for under and for outer clothing.

13. Give the names and uses of the principal minor vegetable fibers.

14. What properties of the respective fibers would aid in distinguishing between China cloth and fabrics of pineapple fiber?

1. Make a collection of yarns representing different fibers. Mount each on a card, adding a drawing of the fiber as seen through the microscope, and a short description of its properties.

2. Learn to recognize the principal fibers by eye and touch.

Chapter II Spinning And Weaving

A. Early Methods of Spinning and Weaving

Early methods of spinning Spindle and distaff Processes involved in spinning Carding

Use of spinning wheels Early methods of weaving Primitive looms Essential operations in weaving Navajo loom Zuni heddle or loom The hand loom

B. The Industrial Revolution

Its place in history The great inventions

Spinning jenny

Arkwright's spinning machine

The mule

Power loom

Cotton gin

Steam engine The textile industry in the United States The results of the factory system

C. Present Methods of Spinning and Weaving

Modern spinning frames

Mule spinning

Ring spinning Modern weaving

Power loom

Jacquard loom 14

A. Early Methods of Spinning and Weaving

Early methods of spinning. — Spinning is the process by which fibers may be combined, drawn out and twisted to form a continuous thread. No one knows how the discovery was first made that certain fibers could be spun. Probably the earliest method was simply the twisting of the fiber between the thumb and the first finger as it was drawn out from a bunch of wool or cotton. As the thread was drawn out it was wound on a stone or stick and the process repeated until enough thread was spun. We know that for thousands of years B.C. and up to about 1500 A.D., all yarn or thread used was spun on a simple contrivance known as the spindle, and many different varieties of spindles have been found in many parts of the world among prehistoric relics.

Spindle and distaff. — The early spindle was a straight stick from 10 to 12 inches long. A loose thread of wool was fastened to one end of this stick, and the stick was either whirled between the hip and the palm of the hand, if the spinner sat on the ground, or dropped at the side, if the

worker was standing. During the whirling

process the thread became twisted. After Indian ^Spini^e*^ this twisting was done sufficiently the yarn was wound upon the stick and fastened at the end in a notch, and the process was repeated. Finally some one discovered that the spindle revolved more quickly when wound with yarn, as it became heavier, and a weight was therefore added at one end. This was called a whorl; it was a lump of clay, or a stone, or a piece of wood. It also served to keep the yarn from slipping off the spindle. Spindles were made of wood, bone and metal, and many interesting ones may be seen in the museums.

The raw fiber to be spun was placed lightly around a stick which was held under the left arm or thrust into the belt. This was the distaff. In Germany it was called a rock

(2) the twisting of the thread to make it stronger ;

(3) the winding up of the twisted thread on the spindle. These underlying principles are the same ones applied later to the spinning wheel and at the present time to machine methods, although the method has varied greatly.

Carding. — The wool fibers were always carded before being spun, and carding is probably as ancient an art as spinning. In carding, the wool was untangled and formed into soft rolls by cards made of wood or leather into which wires were set. Two of these cards were used ; the fibers were placed between them and with a card held in each hand they were so rubbed together that a soft roll of smooth wool resulted. (See Fig. 11.) This soft roll is now called a sliver.

Use of spinning wheels. — About the year 1500 a new method of spinning came into use in Europe. This was and was held erect on a block while the spinner stood near by. In many parts of the continent one can still see peasants spinning with a spindle and distaff.