The Bombay plague : being a history of the progress of plague in the Bombay presidency from September 1896 to June 1899

Contents

... • •• ••• ••• ••• ...

Chapter I.— GENERAL REVIEW

I. Plague in the Presidency (September 1896 — June 1899)

II. Measures and their Results

III. Evacuation ... ... ...

IV. Inoculation ...

V. The Discretional Relief Fund

VI. T he Mortality of Plague

VII. Duration of Epidemics ... ...

Chapter II.— THE MEDICAL ASPECTS OF PLAGUE Chapter III.— I. THE PLAGUE RESEARCH LABORATORY II. THE BACTERIOLOGY OF PLAGUE

Chapter IV.—' TOWN AND ISLAND OF BOMBAY,

Chapter V.— SEA INSPECTION

Chapter VI.— RAILWAY INSPECTION

Chapter VII.- —THE NORTHERN DIVISION

(In alphabetical order of Districts.)

Chapter VIII.— THE CENTRAL DIVISION

(In alphabetical order of Districts.)

Chapter IX.— THE SOUTHERN DIVISION

(In alphabetical order of Districts.)

Chapter X.— SIND...

Chapter XI.— AGENCIES AND STATES

(In alphabetical order. )

Chapter XII.— I. PLAGUE COMMISSIONS

II. THE LITERATURE OF PLAGUE

Appendices—

L General View of Weekly Plague Cases and Deaths.

II Charts for Districts, a

... 1— 9

... 11—15

... 17—33 ... 3 5 — 50

... 195—268

... 269—313

V KEFACE.

A report on Plague in India from September 1896 to August 1897, compiled by Mr. R. Nathan, I. C. S., was published under the orders of the Government of India in 1898 ; and a report on Plague in this Presidency for the same period, compiled by Mr. Couchman, I. C. S., was published under the orders of this Government in September 1397. Subsequently, neither the Government of India nor this Government have issued any comprehensive report on Plague ; but reports have been issued by other Governments in whose territories the pestilence has appeared. They are as follows:' —

(1) Report on Plague in the Hoshiarpur and Jullundar Districts (Panjab).

(2) Report on Plague in the Central Provinces.

The Government of Bombay have decided that it is desirable, if not indeed necessary, that some account of the history and progress of Plague in this Presidency during the past two years, together with the efforts made to repel and to combat it, should be placed on record. The main objects aimed at in this Report are — a comprehensive record of the rise and progress of the disease in this Presidency from May 1897 to June 1899, with its effects, both good and bad : the delimitation of our present knowledge of its origin, growth, dissemination and treatment : the results attained by the preventive and combative measures actually adopted : and a work of reference.

The sources from which this Report has been compiled are many and various. They may be summarised briefly as follows: — Reports of other Governments ; reports of Government officials, and others specially employed on Plague duty ; reports of specialists and experts ; miscellaneous works on Plague. In this connection special acknowledgment is due to Major W. B. Banuerman, I. M. S., and Capt. C. J. R. Milne, I. M. S., — to the first of whom is due a large share in the Chapters on Inoculation and the Rise of the Plague Research Laboratory, and also the revision of the Chapter on the Medical Aspects of Plague : and by the second of whom the Chapter on the Bacteriology of Plague was specially written for this work : to Mr. B. Sands, late Superintendent of the Plague Department, whose great experience of Plague records, and whose help in the correction of proofs, and in suggestions regarding the Report generally, have been most valuable : to Major J. Crimmin, V. C., I. M. S., and to Dr. E. L. Marsh for much miscellaneous assistance.

An Index, carefully and methodically compiled, by Dr. Cuthbert Christy, on Special Plague Duty, has been added for facility of reference.

Executive Plague duties have, unfortunately, seriously interfered with the up-keep of accurate and detailed Plague records. Plague appears in a place, sweeps off anything from one-tenth to one-third of the population in a few months, and then disappears, leaving no time for the Plague staff to do more than attend to the wants of the stricken and provide for the protection of the healthy. Records kept under such conditions as these, where a continued series of close observations concentrated on one particular point have been impossible, preclude any but the most hesitating deductions.

It has been considered better to insert charts, maps, etc,, in their proper places, than to collect them in a separate volume.

The period properly embraced by this Report is from 4th June 1897 to 2nd June 1899, and events outside these dates are very briefly dealt with. For details of the first year’s Plague and Plague measures, therefore, Nathan’s or Couchman’s Reports should be referred to.

For those whose interest in the subject of Plague extends beyond the limits of this volume, a Chapter — though by no means an exhaustive one — on Plague Literature has been added.

J. K. CONDON, Capt.,

Bombay, Indian Staff Corps,

30th November 1899. Under-Secretary to Government.

I

V

V *

* t

J r f

4‘-

•V

1'

V '

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Appendices-

TAGE

A.

General view

of plague cases

and deaths in the Northern Division ...

... 384

B

Do.

do.

do. in the Central Division ...

... 384

C.

Do.

do.

do. in the Southern Division...

... 384

D.

Do.

do.

... 384

E.

Do.

do.

do. in the Native States

... 384

Bacteriology of Plague-

Plate I. Blood of rat which had died of plague 3, II. Plague Bacilli from a 24 hour „ III and IV. “ Involution forms ” of Plague Bacilli growth on Agar-agar

Plague Bacilli in chains ...

O

• • •

« • 9 • • •

...

„ VI.

Haffkine’s “ Stalactite growth ”

„ VII. “ The Snowfall ”

• • .

» ® o ace

0 0

„ VIII. Growth of Plague on Agar-agar, ‘‘Giant Colonies'’

„ IX. Single Old Colony on Agar

• • •

...

...

,, X. Growth of B. Pestis on Agar, showing appearance of large Colonie

s

Chart (s)—

Of epidemic

in Kanaswadi ...

...

o .

I-XXXII referred to in Major Lyons’ report

...

• • • • • •

• •

Of weekly total mortality in Bombay City from Septern

her 1896 to November 1 899

Showing mortality in Ankleswar Town

...

...

• ••

Do.

in Broach Town ...

...

• *.

Do.

in Godhra Town ...

...

...

• •

Do.

in Bulsar Town ...

...

... ...

176, 182

Do.

in Surat Town

...

... ...

...

Do.

in Surat District ...

...

• • • • • •

. . *

Do.

in Bassein Town ...

...

• • • • • •

..

Do.

in Bhiwudi Town

...

• ••

...

Do.

in Ahmednagar Town ...

...

• • • • • •

...

Do.

in -Jalgaon Town...

...

• • • • • •

Do.

in Nasik Town ...

...

...

Do.

in Nasik District...

...

• .

Do.

in Malegaon Town

...

..

Do.

in Poona City

...

..

Do.

in Poona District

...

..

Do.

iu Karachi City ...

...

...

..

Do.

in Karachi District

...

...

..

Do.

in Sind

...

..

Do.

iu Karad Town ...

...

...

..

Do.

in Tasgaon Town...

...

..

Do.

in Sholapur Town ... ...

...

• •

Do.

in Sholapur District

...

Do.

in Ilka! Town

...

... ...

..

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Showing mortality

in Belgaum Town

...

...

...

...

Do.

in Hubli Town ...

...

...

Ml

... 276

Do.

in Dharwar Town

... ...

...

. • .

... 289

Do.

in Satara District

... ...

. . •

... 256

Do.

in Belgaum District

...

...

... 256

Do.

in Dharwar District

... . .

. • .

. • .

... 294

Do.

in Gadag Town ..

...

. • •

. • .

... 291

Do.

in Panrel Town ...

...

. • .

. • .

... 305

Do.

in Kolaba District

. • .

... 306

Do.

in Thana District...

...

. • .

• • .

... 306

Do.

in Jaigad Town ...

...

...

. . .

... 310

Do.

in Bantwa Town ...

...

. . .

... 351

Do.

Diagram (s)

in Kolhapur and S. M.

Country

...

...

... 356

Of triangular shelter for evacuation purposes Of superior shelter for evacuation purposes ...

Map (s) of Bombay Presidency illustrating extent and intensity of plague — No. I and No. I (<x) from September 1896 — June 1897

No. II and No. II (a) from June 1897 — June 1898

No. Ill and No. Ill (a) from June 1898 — June 1899

No. IV and No. IV (a) from September 1896 — June 1899

Explanatory of Map No. IV (a)

Plate (s)— between 2

„ 8

I. Staff of the Imperial Research Laboratory, October 1899

II. Mr. W. Haffkine in his Laboratory at Khusbru Lodge

III. The Staff of the Laboratory at Khusbru Lodge about July 1898...

IV. Mr. Haffkine, Capt. Milne and Assistants inoculating in the streets of

V. Media preparation room

VI. Do. do. do

VII. Steriliser, in which the 4-litre ffasbs of bouillon are sterilised

VIII. The dark fermentation room ...

IX. Thu decantiffg room ..

X. Assistant Surgeons decanting the vaccine into small sterilised bottles ...

and 3 and 5 and 9 9

114 114

118 118 118

I INTRODUCTION

Fr&vious to A. D 1300.

[The following are the sources from which this chapter has been compiled : —

Encyc. Brit. * Quain’s Diet, of Med. : Sir A. Faulkner, M.D., A Treatise on the Plague ; MacLean, Epidemic, and Pestilential Diseases : Nathan, The Plague in India : Bombay Gazetteer .]

The word plague is derived, through the Latin plaga, from the Greek r : it signifies ‘ a stroke.’

Pla gue is the most deadly of all known diseases. Obscure in its origin, persistent in its duration, terrible in its effects, it has baffled alike the investigations of science and the observations of the most perspicacious. The attitude it compels in those who are, and in those likely to become, its victims is one of abject panic. It assumes varying forms, it strikes with varying force, it rises and falls with varying rapidity.

Such is the disease which, appearing century after century, now in the most deadly epidemic, arid now in a mild sporadic, form, was the scourge of Europe up to the very beginning of the 19th century. As well for the sake of completeness, as for that of interest and comparison, a brief sketch of what it has done in the past, both in the West and in the East, will not be out of place here.

PLAGUE IN EUROPE.

The first historical notice we have of Plague is contained in the fraornent of

O O

the Physician Rufus of Ephesus, preserved by Oribasius (circ. B. 0. 200) ; but although mentioned later by Livy and by Orosius as destroying one million people in Africa, it is not until the 6th century, in the reign of Justinian, that we find Bubonic Plague in Europe.

Beginning at Palusium (Egypt) in 542 A. D., it spread over Egypt ; in 543 it reached Constantinople, where it is said to have destroyed 10,000 people in one day; in 546 we find it in Gaul (France) ; in 565 in Italy, “ where it depopulated, the country to such an extent as to leave it an easy prey to the Lombards.” Constantinople was, thus, we see, the first haunt of Plague in Europe ; and it appears to have been the starting point for most, if not all, succeeding European epidemics.

But although Plague appeared thus early in Europe, it was not until very much later that it appeared in England.

The history of Plague from the time of the J ustinian pandemic is very vague until we reach the 14th century, when that great cycle of epidemics known as the “ Black Death,” swept over Europe, inflicting enormous mortality.*

* •* Whether in ail the pestilences known by this name the disease was really the same may admit of doubt, hut it is clear that in some at least it was the huhon/ic plague." — Eneyc ■ Brit., Art. *' Plague.”

“ It must, however, be remembered that although numerous pestilenoes in Europe are recorded by mediaeval chroniclers, there is no sufficient evidence, before-the 14th century, that they were bubonic placrue. The undoubted prevalence of this disease began after the black death cf the fourteenth century,” — Quain's. Did. of Med,, Art, ‘•Piague.”

e

14th Century, “ The

Black Death ”

15th Century.

16th Century.

I7th Century.

X INTRODUCTION.

This frightful scourge appears to have originated in the East, and to have entered Europe via Tartar y and the Crimea. According to old Russian chronicles, its origin "was China, where, as is confirmed to some extent bv Chinese records, pestilence and inundations are at this time (1300-1400) said to have destroyed the enormous number of thirteen millions. Appearing first in Sicily and Constantinople in 1346, it invaded Greece, parts of Italy, and Marseilles in 1347 ; in 1 348 it attacked Spain, Northern Italy7 and Rome, Eastern Germany, many parts of France, including Paris, and England, including London, whence it spread to Scandinavia. Oxford was attacked in 1352. Scotland and Ireland, too, though affected later, did not escape.

The death-tribute exacted byT this terrific wave of pestilence was appalling. It is estimated that three-fourths of the population of England perished* ; while Europe is calculated to have lost one-fourth of its inhabitants — twenty -five millions of people, f

In the 15th century the pestilence re-appeared frequently in almost every7 part of Europe : carrying off 80,000 in Dantzic and the neighbourhood in 1427 : 40,000 in Paris in 1466 : while Northern Italy was devastated in 1477-85, and Brussels in 1485. In the last year of the century (1499-1500) a severe plague in London caused King Henry VII. to retire to Calais.

The 16th century was not more free from the scourge than the 15th ; but it constitutes an important epoch in Plague : for, about 1550 A. JD., the question of contagion was first raised. Plague had also henceforth to be distinguished from Typhus fever, which, during this century, made its first appearance in Europe.

Edinburgh was, attacked in 1529 : London and the north of England in 1537 and 1547 : Italy and Germany about the same time ; while in Paris about this time plague was an every-day occurrence, familiarity with which had bred contempt. Severe epidemics occurred at Moscow and in the neighbourhood (1570), in which 200,000 perished; at Lyons (1570), plague mortality — 50,000 ; at Venice (1576), where 70,000 were carried off.

In the first half of the 17 th century the pestilence was still prevalent in Europe, though considerably less so than in the Middle Ages : in the second half a still greater decrease took place: while in the next 25 years it was disappearing rapidly from Western Europe.

Two noteworthy epidemics, nevertheless, were recorded during this century. The first — one of the most terrible and destructive of all recorded European epidemics — raged at Naples in 1656: where it destroyed 300,000 people in 5 months. Genoa also lost 6Q,000 in this epidemic.

* “ In England a great part of the country remained untilled, and the deficiency of labourers was such as to “ cause a sudden rise of wages, which, in spite of attempts to check it by legislation, is believed to have effected “ the final emancipation of the labouring class. On the other hand, a great transfer of property to the Church “ took place — with what results is well known.” — Encyc. Brit., Art. “ Plague.”

f Hecker's estimate.

INTRODUCTION. x;

The second was the great Plague of London ; in which, out of an estimated population of 500,000 (two-thirds of whom are supposed to have fled panic-stricken) , 68,000 perished within the year.*

From 1666 England was free from Plague. A few sporadic cases indeed occurred up to 1679, and a column filled up with “ 0 ” is found in the bills of mortality up till 1703 ; when it finally disappeared. For its disappearance from England now (1679), as for its disappearance from the Continent of Europe later, no reason can be assio-ned.

o

18th Century. In the 18th century Plague was more or less confined to Eastern Europe,

although in 1720-1722 a severe outbreak occurred in Provence ; Marseilles and Toulon being attacked. In this outbreak, out of a total population of 250,000, 87,500 are said to have perished. The Provence epidemic is noteworthy because of the panic it caused in England : where in consequence quarantine was enforced for the first time. In 1717 Plague re-appeared at Constantinople : 1719 in Transylvania, Hungary and Poland: 1743 in Sicily: 1738-1744 in Hungary, Moravia and Austria: 1755 in European Turkey: 1770 in Moldavia (during the Russo- Turkish War), Poland, Ivieff, and Moscow, at which latter place it developed into one of the most destructive epidemics of modern times. Over 50,000 persons — nearly one half of the population — perished. From 1770 the disease, while re-appearing in the haunts of the terrible early epidemics, w7as more limited both in range and duration. In 1799 and 1800 a new epidemic in Syria and Egypt affected both the French and the English Armies which were operating there.

19th Century. Throughout the 18th century the tide of Plague had steadily ebbed away from

the West ; in the 19th century this ebb was still more marked. In 1802 Plague appeared at Constantinople and Armenia: in 1806 at Astrakhan (Russia): in 1808 at Smyrna. In 1812 a more general epidemic affected these places and also Egypt. From 1813-1815 it appeared in Bucharest, Malta, Corfu, Dalmatia and Egypt: in 1815 at Noja on the East Coast of Italy — so far itjrs last appearance in that country— and produced a panic throughout Europe. In 1824 it attacked Tutchkoff in Bessarabia, but the towm was strictly isolated by a military Cordon, and the disease did not spread. In 1828 it appeared in Cronstadt, and is believed to have been again confined by similar action. In 1828-9, during the campaign of the Russian Army against Turkey, a more serious outbreak occurred : for Plague appeared in Odessa, the Crimea, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia : but it spread no further ; its limitation being again attributed to the Russian and Austrian military Cordons. In 1831 Constantinople and Roumelia suffered from Plague ; in 1837 Roumelia and Odessa ; and, with an isolated outbreak in Dalmatia in 1840, and one in Constantinople in 1841, the Plague-History of the European Continent comes to a close.

* “ This number is likely to be rather too low than too high ; since, of the 6,432 deaths from spotted fever, iC many were probably really from plague, though not declared so to avoid painful restrictions —JfncyG, B? i > t Cl Plague,”

INTRODUCTION.

Beiore 1800 A D.

xn

With such a previous record, the recent appearance of Plague in Portugal and Spain cannot be regarded without anxiety.

At the present time there are believed to be three endemic haunts of plague. The first in Mesopotamia ; the second in Gahrwal and Ivumaon at the foot of the Himalayas in the North-West Provinces : the third in Yunnan in China.

Dr. Koch mentions another endemic centre, which is situated in Africa (near lake Nyassa), and is supported in this view by Dr. Proust,

PLAGUE IN INDIA.

(Up to September 1896.)

We cannot in the case of India trace the history of Plague century by century. Up to 1809 a reliable historical document is a rara avis. We can only record the instances where mention is made of Plague under such terms as 1 Waba ,’ ‘ TadunJ etc., and conjecture how far the statements are accurate, and to what extent the pestilence referred to is identical with that which is amongst us now. But even such references as these are rare. The following brief summary of what is known on the subject is taken from Nathan’s Plague in India :

“ Only two direct references have, however, been traced which may point to the existence of Plague in the west of India in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The first is from Ibn Batuta, who notices that Muhammad Tughlak’s army in Ma’bar (1325-1351) mostly perished of pestilence, and that at the end of the century (1399), after Timur left, the districts through which he had passed were visited by pestilence. The second relates to the year 1443, when pestilence caused such loss of life in the army of Sultan Ahmad I. that, leaving many of the dead unburied, he retired to Gujarat. Ferishta calls this disease tUun, and speaks of it as very unusual in India. The famine of 1590 to 1594 was followed by a pestilence that, besides hamlets and villages, depopulated whole cities. It must remain a matter of conjecture whether these outbreaks of virulent pestilence were epidemics of true Plague.

“ Twice in the seventeenth century the district of Ahmedabadin the Bombay Presidency was visited by severe epidemics of pestilence which were probably outbreaks of Plague. The Bombay Gazetteer gives the following description of the first of these epidemics, which appears to have been very widespread : —

“‘The disease that raged in Ahmedabad in 1618 began in the Punjab in 1611. It is called the plague, Waba or Waba-o-ta’un , and the works of the Hindus are said to have no mention of such a disease. It was thought to be connected with the comet of 1612. From the Punjab it spread through Lahore, through the Doab to Delhi, and north to Kashmir. No place in Hindustan was free from its ravages. Lulling at times, it continued to lay waste the country for eight years. About the same time in Kandahar the land was overrun by mice, and mice and plague seem to have had some close connexion. A mouse would rush out of its hole as if

INTRODUCTION.

The

Gujarat Epidemic, 1812-1821.

The first notice of pneumonic olague.

xiii

mad, and striking itself against the doors and walls of the house, would die. Then the plague was in the house. If the people at once fled they might be saved; if they staged, the whole village was swept away.’

“ With reference to the second outbreak which occurred during the period 1683 to 1689, the Gazetteer makes the following remarks: ‘For several years before 1689 the plague, Td'un and Wabd, was again in Alimedabad, and lasted for seven or eight years. The visible marks were swellings as big as a grape or banana behind the ears, under the arms, and in the groin, and redness round the pupils of the eyes.’ Hirsch repeats the following quotation made by Macpherson (‘Annals of Cholera,’ London, 1872) from an Indian chronicle which apparently refers to this epidemic : ‘A fever had prevailed for some }’ears both in the Deccan and in Gujarat. It consisted of a slight swelling under the ears, or in the armpit or groin, attended with inflamed eyes and severe fever. It generally proved fatal in a few hours.* Hirsch remarks that this description is suggestive of plague.

“ It is stated in the Alimedabad Gazetteer that during the eighteenth century, though none of the s}unptoms of the disease are described, there would seem to have been several outbreaks of a most deadly form of fever. In 17 JS, a year of famine, great numbers died of sickness ; in 1770, another famine year, ‘ on account of the unwholesomeness of the atmosphere, thousands of people died of fever in two or three days, so that no one could be found to bury them.’ Fearful disease is said to have accompanied the 1790 famine. ”

From the year 1800, however, the sources of information are reliable, and we have authentic records of at least two great epidemics. The first of these was the Gujarat epidemic of 1812-1821.

Breaking out first in Cutch in 1812, and spreading thence over Kathiawar, Alimedabad, and Southern Sind, it devastated Western India for a period of ten years. The years 1811 and 1812 were remarkable for a severe famine which affected the larger portion of Gujarat. It was at the close of this famine that the Plague appeared in Cutch.

Cutch is said to have lost half its population during this epidemic. Two Medical Officers, Drs. Gilder and White, visited the country at the time, and wrote accounts of the disease : and the pneumonic form of plague was now discovered for the first time by Dr. Whi-te, who gives the following interesting description of its symptoms : —

“ In this man the heat of the body was not much increased nor the pulse “ greatly accelerated ; his bowels were- not disordered, nor did his tongue “ indicate much febrile irritation. He was able to walk about and converse, ‘‘ answering questions distinctly. No person would have thought him in “ danger, but there existed in the patient’s mind a degree of alarm and “ anxiety altogether disproportionate to the apparent symptoms. He had

Mild Bubonic Plague.

The Pali Epidemic 1836-1838- iv INTRODUCTION.

“ only been attacked that morning. All his consideration seemed absorbed “ with a pain in his chest. He answered to my questions whether he had “ not other pain, as in his head, his back or limbs, tjaat these were slightly “ painful; but he immediately recurred to his chest, dtvelling upon that with a “ look of most painful distress ; and if not questioned about other symptoms,

“ it seemed as if he would not have mentioned them. He had besides a very “ slight cough — so light that it might easily have escaped unnoticed — and “ this was accompanied with a discharge of blood from the mouth. The “following day he was delirious, had a burning skin, with a very quick pulse,

“ I searched for, but found no buboes. He died in the course of the succeed- “ ing night, i.e., in less than forty -eight hours from the first attack. The “ characteristic symptoms of this variety are, slight cough, pain of the chest, ‘‘ and haemorrhage from the mouth, attended with fever, but no buboes.”

Dr. White also observed a ‘‘ mild bubonic type,” which he describes as follows : —

“ I saw,” he states, “ a great number who had buboes without any fever, “ and was told that upwards of one hundred and twenty had suffered in this “ way. These people walked about without either alarm or inconvenience, for “none had died, and not many of the buboes suppurated.”

Quain also records a similar form * : —

“In 1877 an outbreak occurred at Resht, the capital of the province of “ Ghilan, Persia, and in the surrounding district. Ghilan lies at the south-west “ angle of the Caspian Sea. The same year cases of a fatal bubonic febrile “ malady occurred in the District of Baku on the Caspian shore of Trans- “ Caucasia : and an outbreak of a non-fatal bubonic affection took place in “ Astrakhan and its vicinage, since recognized as a form of plague.’’

It is interesting to note that the same form, occurred in Cutch last year,, and is thus described by the Political Agent, Major Hyde Cates f: —

“ During the last three months of the year under report (i.e., March, April, “and May 1899), several cases have occurred in which there has been a bubo (gene- “ rally in one of the arm-pits), but without 'fever. The person attacked has suffered “from headache for a day or two, but has not otherwise been inconvenienced.’

The second epidemic was the Pah outbreak of 1836-38; although a disease suspiciously akin to plague was discovered by Col. Skinner at Hansi (Punjab) in 1828-29.

The Pali outbreak occurred in the District of Merwara, between the State of Jodhpore on the north, and the State of Udaipur on the south. Breaking out in July 1836 at Pali, a large town in Marwar, where it destroyed some 4,000 people,

* Quain' s Diet, of Med., Art. “Plague.” t Cutch Political Agent’s lleport No. 339 of 24th July 1899.

INTRODUCTION'.

XV it spread to Sujat (population, 6,000) and Jodhpur (capital ofMarwar); affecting all the intervening towns and villages. From June to March 1837, it attacked the villages of Dewair, Deoghar, Lucanithana, Bednore, Jalia and Ranghar (Ajrnere). In April 1837 it spread in the direction of Neemuch Cantonment, two villages in Merwar being attacked. Towards the end of 1837 it again appeared in Pali and did not die out until the Spring of 1838. The total mortality of this epidemic is not known with any certainty; but it is estimated that 100,000 Marwaris perished. Apart from these great epidemics which have occasionally visited India, and apparently unconnected with them, there is an epidemic centre of plague at Gharwal and Kumaun at the foot of the Himalayas. These two Districts, situated in the North-West Provinces, with an area of over 11,000 square miles, contain a population of nearly 1,000,000 persons. The disease is here called maliamari ; but Assistant Surgeons Francis and Pearson, who investigated the disease locally in 1852, arrived at the following conclusions : —

(lj Maliamari and Plague are identical.

(2) Maliamari is oflocal origin : capable of transmission from person to

person and place to place.

(3) That it is gradually extending itself, and that there seems no reason

why it should not be developed in the surrounding country.

A little more detail as regards former epidemics in Districts in this Presidency is given in the chapters devoted to the recent outbreaks of Plague in such Districts ; but for full details, “ Nathan’s Plague in India,” I896»9?3 VoL L, should be consulted..