Beverages and their adulteration : origin, composition, manufacture, natural, artificial, fermented, distilled, alkaloidal and fruit juices

Front matter

FROM

LIBRARY

s r

Preface

The continued favor which has been shown to my book en¬ titled “ Foods; and Their Adulterations’7 inspires the hope that this volume which is a companion to the food volume will receive equal support. _j*

In view of the fact that the sentiment for prohibition has gained so rapidly in the country as to result in the submission of a constitutional amendment, for national prohibition, to the legislatures of the several states for ratification, many have sug¬ gested that a description of alcoholic beverages may be out of place. Just the contrary is the case. The American citizen who desires all the information possible in making up his mind on this question will certainly be helped by a knowledge of the origin, manufacture, chemical composition and geographical dis¬ tribution of the various forms of alcoholic beverages, both fer¬ mented and distilled.

The rapidly increasing use of fruit juices demands a promi¬ nent place in this volume, for their description and composition. The many types of so-called soft drinks, which will undoubtedly have a greater vogue as the area in which alcoholic beverages are manufactured and sold decreases, warrant a rather full de¬ scription of them here. The so-called medicines which consist chiefly of alcohol, and which are held by the Bureau of Internal Revenue as non-medicinal but alcoholic, are fully described.

Proper space is also given to a discussion of our most popular beverage, coffee, and its related products, tea, cocoa and chocolate.

Water is the typical beverage and in the hope of its coming into more general use it occupies the place of honor in this volume. With potable water, naturally, mineral waters both artificial and natural are included. Milk, another national beverage, has already been described in the volume on “ Foods; and Their Adulterations.”

With each subject treated are described the common adultera¬ tions and misbrandings which may be practised therewith.

VI

PREFACE

Every endeavor has been made to secure accuracy of state¬ ments and data. The latter are taken chiefly from official sources. It should be understood that this book was not written for the scientific investigator but for the average, sober-minded, reason¬ ably well-educated American citizen, who is daily taking a greater and deeper interest in what he eats and drinks.

Harvey W. Wiley.

Washington, D. C.

Table Of Contents

Page

Preface . . v-vi

Sentiment for prohibition, v; Increasing use of fruit juices, v; Accuracy of data, vi.

Part I. — Waters . ’ . 1-65

Pure water, 1; Rain water, 2; Distilled water, 3; Mineral waters, 3-5;

Hard water, 5-7; Irrigation water, 7-8; Softening water, 8-9; Artesian water, 9-10; Drinking water, 10-11; The divining rod, 12-15; Char¬ acteristics of natural water, 15; Decomposition of water, 16; Rare ele¬ ments in water, 17; Interpretation of water analyses, 18-19; Sanitary analysis, 20-22; Bacteriological examination, 22-29; Quantity of water in the body, 30; Use of water as a beverage, 31-33; Purification of water,

33-36; Chicago Canal, 37-38; Filtration, 39-44; Septic tank, 44-47; Different methods of filtration, 47; Destruction of germs, 49-53; Typical city water supplies, 54-59; Water, a carrier of disease, 59-62; Typhoid fever in rural communities, 64-65.

Part II. — Mineral Waters . . . . . . 66-95

Definition, 66; Number and classification, 66-67; Apollinaris water, 67- 69; Requirements of labeling, 69-70; Saratoga waters, 70-80; Mis¬ branding of mineral waters, 80-81; Adulteration of mineral waters,

81-82; Artificial mineral waters, 82-86; Mineral water tablets, 87; Bacterial infection of mineral waters, 88-89; Healing properties of waters, 90-93; Ferruginous waters, 94; Balneology, 95.

Part III. — Soft Drinks . 96-115

Definitions, 96; Typical soft drinks, 96; Vogue of soft drinks, 96-98; Manufacture of soft drinks, 98-99; Soda water, 100; Synthetic lemon¬ ade, 101; Ginger ale and root beer, 101-104; Near beer, 104; Pop, 105; Lemonade, orangeade, 105-106; Soft drinks containing caffein, 106- 114; Danger of free caffein, 114; Adulterations and misbranding, 115.

Part IV. — Fruit Juices . 116-124 • • vii viii TABLE OE CONTENTS

Page

Part V. — Coffee . 12 5-147

Historical, 125-126; Introduction of coffee, 126; Methods of using coffee, 127; Prohibition by Mahomet and Charles II, 127-128; Coffee habit, 129; Coffee houses, 129-131; Meaning of term, 131; Cultivation, 131-132; Relative size of berries, 132; Classification, 133; Application of special names, 134-136; Coffee extracts, 137; Composition of coffee, 138-140; Making coffee, 140; Relative proportions of caffein and tan¬ nin, 141; Decaffeinated coffee, 141-143; Blending coffee, 143-144;

Food value of coffee, 145; Adulteration and misbranding of coffee, 145-

147."

Tea a common beverage, J48; Tea drinking customs, 148-149; Antiq¬ uity of tea drinking, 1 49-1 50; Tea growing, 1 50-1 53; Japan teas, 153- 154; Java tea, 155; American tea, 156-159; Black tea, 160; Green tea,

161; Composition of tea, 162; Making tea, 162-163; Praise and blame, 163-164; Mate or Paraguayan tea, 164-165; Adulteration and mis¬ branding of tea, 165-167; Tea standards, 167-168; Read color method, 168-170; Quantity of tea imported, 1 71 ; Spent or exhausted leaves, 172;

Extract, 172; Adulteration with foreign leaves and other substances,

1 73-1 74.

Part VII. — Cocoa and Chocolate . 175-179

Definitions, 175; Confusion of terms, 175; Production of cocoa, 176-177; Introduction of cocoa, 178; Composition of the cocoa bean, 178; Con¬ sumption of cocoa and chocolate, 179.

Part VIII. — Wine . 180-260

Antiquity and name, 180; Official standards, 180-182; Native wines, 183-184; Early wine making in America, 185-186; Distinctive type of wine, 1 86-1 88; American white and red wines, 188; Possibilities of wine production, 189; Exemption from taxation, 190; Acidity of American wine, 191; Composition of American wines, 192; Classification of French wines, 1 93-1 95; Wines of the Medoc and Sauterne, 195-2 14; Chateau Margaux, 195-197; Chateau Lafite, 197-198; Wines of the Medoc, second class, 200-204; Wines of the Medoc, third class, 204-206;

Grand wines of the Sauternais country, 211-214; Chateau Yquem, 211- 212; Wines of Burgundy, 215-818; Antiquity of the vine in Italy, 219;

The wines of Horace, 2 19-221; Modern Italian wines, classification, 221-222; Wine districts of Italy, 222-225; German wines, 225-231; Hungarian wines, 231-233; Spanish wines, 233-239; Wines of Portugal, 239-247; Manufacture of sparkling wines, 247-251; Restricting the term champagne, 250; Adulteration and misbranding of wines, 252-254; Fortified wine, 254-257; Taxation of wines, 258; Sulphurous acid in wines, 258-260.

Part IX. — Beer, Ale, Porter and Stout . 261-274

Definitions, 261; Manufacture, 261-263; Varieties of beer, 263; Geo¬ graphical names, 264; Composition of domestic beers, 264-265; Re¬ striction of sale, 264-265; Adulteration and misbranding of beer, 265; Materials used in making beer, 266; Antiquity of adulteration, 267-269;

TABLE OE CONTENTS IX

Page

Part X. — Whisky . 275-330

Distilled alcoholic beverages, 275; What is whisky? 276; Origin of term, 276-278; Congeneric principles in whisky, 279-282; Varieties of whisky, 282-283; Official definition, 283-284; Old and new whisky, 284; Chang¬ ing definitions, 285-292; Whisky legislation, 292-295; Early books on whisky, 295-301 ; Origin of name Bourbon, 301; Manufacture of whisky, 301-306; Whisky in bond, 306; Ageing of whisky, 306-307; Official stamping of whisky, 307-310; Bottling in Bond Act, 307-310; Scotch whisky, 31 0-315; Moonshine whisky, 3 15-3 17; Composition of whisky, 317-318; Rectified whisky, 319-322; Magnitude of spirit industry, 323-324; Flavors in whisky, 325-326; Adulteration and misbranding of whisky, 327-330.

Part XI. — Brandy . 331-357

Definition, 331; Cognac, 331-341; Grapes from which cognac is made, 333-335; The vintage season, 336; Distillation of cognac, 336-339;

Time of maturity, 338-339; Composition of cognac, 339; Blending, 340;

History of the cognac vineyards, 340-342; Different kinds of cognac,

343; Limits of the cognac, district, 344-346; Brandy from Marc, 347; Pharmacopoeial definition, 348-349; Definition of Official Agricultural Chemists, 349-350; American brandy, 351; Apple brandy, 351-352;

Peach brandy, 352-353; Blackberry brandy, 353-354; Cherry brandy,

354; Adulteration and misbranding of brandy, 355-357.

Definition, 358-359; Character of the raw material, 359; Manufacture, 360-361; Varieties, 361; Jamaica rum, 362-365; Composition of rum,

366; Guadaloupe rum, 366-368; Demerara rum, 368; History of rum in New England, 368-372; Early manufacture of rum, 372-373; Markets for rum, 373-374; Where made in the United States, 373; Quantity made, 373-374; Adulteration of rum, 374.

Part XVI.— Beverages Containing Cocaine . 405-408

Source of cocaine, 405; The coca shrub, planting, cultivating and harvesting, 405-406; Drying and marketing of the coca leaf, 406-407; Beverages containing cocaine, 407-408; Prohibition of cocaine in bev¬ erages, 408; Permission to use decocainized leaves.

409-421

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates Page

I. Genuine tea leaves and possible adulterants . Facing 172

II. Genuine tea leaves and possible adulterants . Facing 173

Figs.

1. Eudiometer . 16

2. Water cooler . 33

3. Distribution of copper sulphate . 53

4. Contamination of water at Troy, Pennsylvania . 61

5. Spouting spring in Geyser Park, Saratoga . 71

6. Label Ha thorn Spring . 78

7. Label Orenda Water . 79

8. Label Soft Sweet Spring . 79

9. Label Hathorn No. 2 . 79

10. Label Coesa Spring . 79

11. Map of coffee districts . 134

12. Samovars at Sparrow Hill ( . 149

13. Tea bush at Pinehurst . 157

14. Colored children picking tea at Pinehurst . • . 157

15. Loading end of sterilizer . . . . . 161

16. Branch of cocoa tree with pods attached . 176

17. Pods and leaves of cocoa tree . 177

18. Original scuppernong grape vine . 187

19. Chateau Figeac . 194

20. Chateau Yquem vineyard . 195

21. Map of the Bordeaux wine district . 196

22. Typical vine of the Sauterne country . 197

23. Chateau Margaux . . 198

24. A cellar for new wine . 199

25. Chateau Haut-Brion . 200

26. Harvesting grapes in the M6doc . 201

27. Chateau Langoa . 209

28. Chateau Yquem . 212

29. Grape harvesting at Saint-Emillion . 215

30. Vintage in the tubs, tramping the grapes . 216

31. Making wine casks . 217

32. Pouring the wine into casks . 218

33. Head cellar man testing a vintage wine . 218

34. Map showing areas producing Port wine . 240

35. Utilizing a hillside in Portugal . 241

36. A typical Port wine vineyard . . . . 242

37. Carrying the grapes to the winery in Portugal . 243

38. View of the vineyards at Charroux . 332

39. Superposed vats . 333

40. Brandy distillery at Saintes . 337 xi

INTRODUCTORY

Definitions.- — Beverages, as distinguished from foods, are those substances which are consumed in a liquid state and which may or may not have food value. There is no legal distinction between a food and a beverage. Beverages in the food law are defined as part of food. In general it may be said that all products which require mastication are foods in the common acceptation of that word. All liquid products which are consumed as or with foods, or for quenching thirst, requiring no mastication, may be classed under the common appellation of beverages. Water is a beverage and so classed by the food and drug act and by regulations and court decisions thereunder.

Beverages of a Two-fold Character.— It follows from the above that beverages are conveniently divided into two great classes, the bases of which depend upon the point of view of the utility of the article consumed. Such products as milk, sweet cider, fruit juices, extracts containing food properties, and similar condimentals, serve as foods; while at the same time they may be condimental, in other words, appealing to the taste. On the contrary, things which are consumed in a liquid state which, have little or no food value, belong to the purely condi¬ mental class of beverages. As types of these bodies there may be mentioned tea, coffee, ginger ale, mineral waters, potable waters, and others of similar character.

A sub-division may also be made of those beverages which

contain toxic properties, either natural or added. Among these

in the first rank are all alcoholic beverages, especially distilled.

In addition to these, coffee and tea as well as wine and beer may

be classed in this sub-division because of the toxic alcohol or

caffein which they contain. Among soft drinks, those to which

caffein or cocaine or other deleterious substances have been

added would be included in the sub-classification.

•• •

Xlll

XIV

INTRODUCTORY

Beverages for Quenching Thirst.— The primal use of the

beverage is to secure a sufficient liquid content in the fluids of the body. Whenever for any reason there is need of more water in the body, a sensation of thirst is developed. The common expression of thirst is “dry.” This term, however, has been almost completely appropriated by the fictitious idea of what thirst signifies. In other words, the desire for an alcoholic bev¬ erage is now very commonly referred to as expressing the idea contained in the word “dry.” The phrase “I am so dry” which occurs in the drinking song does not refer to any lack of moisture in the body. The use of alcohol in excess develops thirst instead of satisfying it. In like manner the use of excessive quantities of common salt or other mineral substance of that nature requires a larger quantity of water in the system to properly dilute the saline contents of the liquids of the body.

There is only one beverage for real thirst, and that is water. The character of water to be used in the satisfaction of thirst will be the subject of special consideration.

Difficulties of Description. — It is very difficult to undertake a description of the beverages in common use without digressing into the realm of hygiene and physiology, and it is still more diffi¬ cult to do so without considering the ethical aspects of the question. I wish it to be understood, first of all, that the object of this book is not to discuss chiefly questions of health or hygiene, nor of ethics, although this may be done occasionally by way of inci¬ dental remarks. The object of this volume is to describe the common beverages which we consume. It is important to know their origin, their methods of manufacture, their composition, and the proper conditions attending their transportation and use. It is important that the informed citizen should know something of the nature of these beverages other than that presented by their commercial aspect. Especially should he know the difficulties which attend the securing of a water supply suitable for potable purposes. The various methods which have been practised of securing this water supply, as well as the causes of contamination, will be developed to a considerable extent because of their vital importance to human welfare.

In so far as possible the personal experience of the author has been called upon to furnish the principal data of this volume.

INTRODUCTORY

XV

It is not difficult, however, to imagine that no one person could, even if he made a life-long specialty of the study, become person¬ ally acquainted with all phases of the great industries connected with the beverages of mankind. I have therefore endeavored, in so far as I could, to draw my information other than that obtained from personal experience and investigation from reliable sources.

Part I

Pure Waters — Pure water, that is water which is not mixed v with any other substance, is practically unknown. To obtain pure water artificially requires the highest skill of the chemist’s art combined with the most delicate technique. Water has been described as the universal solvent. Not only does it dissolve many other liquids, but acts upon most solid bodies producing a greater or less degree of solution, and particularly does it dissolve the gases with which it may come into contact. For this reason water also dissolves the materials of its containers, especially if they be glass, the degree of solution being very marked in some kinds of glass and less marked in others. By reason of its tend¬ ency to dissolve matters of this kind water can only be secured in a pure state with the greatest precautions and by preparing it in vessels to which it is inert. Pure water, in the strictest sense of that term, is therefore a chemical curiosity and does not con¬ cern us in any other way. The art of preparing pure water is strictly chemical and does not form any part of the present dis¬ cussion. The distilled water of commerce, when properly pre¬ pared is free of living organisms and contains only minute quan¬ tities of foreign bodies.

Water as a Beverage .■ — In this manual water will be considered soleily as a beverage. The term “ beverage ” has a wide application and is often construed to apply only to artificial preparations. Th s, however, is not a correct interpretation of the term. Under the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, all beverages are regarded as foods. Water is the most important of all beverages. It is also an indispensable food. It forms a large part of all living organisms — in fact the principal part of many of them, such as the very succulent vegetables. The human body contains approximately 70 percent of water. The importance of water as a food, or in other words as a beverage, is therefore evident. It is practically the one beverage which is universal in its consump¬ tion. The abundant presence of water is necessary to life, both animal and vegetable. The great deserts of the surface of the earth are made so principally by the lack of water.

Classification of Water as a Beverage.- — Water is used as a beverage in various forms. The principal source of drinking water is found in the springs and wells. Spring water or well water consists of the water which falls upon the surface of the earth and either enters tiie surface of the earth directly or sub¬ sequent to its forming streams of greater or less size. Passing through the earth the water absorbs the soluble principles with which it may come into contact. When the quantity of these dis¬ solved matters is not large there is formed ordinary spring or well water. In water of this kind the amount of dissolved matter is not sufficient to give any characteristic taste. Spring or well water of this kind forms by far the greatest part of the water used as a beverage in all except crowded centers such as the towns and cities. When the water comes to the surface through natural causes it produces the spring. When water is secured by digging or boring into the earth there is produced what is known as the well. Unless the material through which water percolates is exposed to some infection spring and well water is universally regarded as the most wholesome form of water as a beverage.

Rain Water.- — Rainfall is often collected and stored in cisterns and used for beverage purposes. As will be explained further on, rain water is subject to many sources of pollution, particularly by entangling matters floating through the air or collecting debris off the roofs or other surfaces upon which it first falls. This is particularly apt to be the case with the first portions of the rain. In heavy and long-continued rains the portions which fall toward the end of the precipitation are almost pure. They contain very little solid matter in solution but usually are saturated with the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere and contain more or less carbon dioxid; as rain water must also be regarded melted snow either collected upon the roofs of houses or otherwise. The water which comes from the melting of the snow has all the characteristics of the water precipitated directly as rain. When these waters have come in contact with the soil they begin at

3'

once to dissolve mineral and organic matters and lose their dis¬ tinctive character as rain water. The melted snows of high mountain peaks are believed to be the purest forms of rain water that exist.

Stream and River Water. — When the water flowing from the surface of the earth or from springs collects into streams or rivers it is often used as a source of the water as a beverage. Such water is often taken directly for consumption or pumped into reservoirs and distributed to crowded centers of population. Waters of this kind form the principal supply of the large cities.

Distilled Water. — Distilled water, as recognized in the Pharma¬ copoeia, ninth decennial revision 1916, is described as “A colorless limpid liquid, without odor or taste and neutral to the official

indicators . It should give no reaction for ammonia,

nitrates, nitrites, sulphates, chlorids, carbon dioxid. When 100 mils are evaporated on a water bath to dryness not more than 0.001 gram of residue should remain.”

Further, the Pharmacopoeia requires that distilled water should contain no organic matter. Distilled water is often used for beverage purposes, but only in limited quantities. It is rarely distributed for public consumption, but is usually prepared on the premises where it is consumed, except in the case of bottled waters or those which are regarded as imitations or artificial waters. Distilled water has toxic properties for plants probably due tolack of plant food, and except for the reason that it is likely to be sterile and free from all soluble impurities is not highly regarded as a beverage. It is usually quite free of dissolved gases, has a flat and insipid taste, and does not equal in potable properties water from springs and wells.

Mineral Waters.- — Mineral waters are those which have ex¬ tracted from the soil and rocks through which they have passed sufficient quantities of mineral matters to give them a distinct . character. These dissolved matters are of the most varied character. They consist largely of the salts of the ordinary bases, namely, soda, potash, lime, magnesia, and iron and morerarely lithia and radio-activity. The rarer elements are some¬ times found in these waters, but only in minute quantities. Oc¬ casionally poisonous principles, such as arsenic, alum and copper, are found dissolved in waters of this character. In general, it may be said that the use of mineral waters as a regular beverage is not to be commended. These waters are useful for special purposes, which will be described further on.

Chalybeate Waters.- — Chalybeate waters are those which con¬ tain a sufficient quantity of iron to give them a distinctive fer¬ ruginous character. They are highly prized in many forms of disease, the iron being supposed to be of a tonic nature. In chalybeate water the iron which is in solution usually becomes pre¬ cipitated on standing, either by oxidation or by the escape of carbon dioxid from the solution.

Sulphur Waters.- — Sulphur waters are those mineral waters which contain sufficient quantities of compounds of sulphur, chiefly hydrogen sulphid, to give them a distinct character. These waters are usually recognized very easily by the unpleasant- — to most persons at least — and characteristic odor of hydrogen sulphid pervading them. Elemental sulphur is found separated from waters of this kind forming excretions of greater or less extent around the orifices of the springs. Mineral waters may at times contain sulphur dioxid in solution, but in general the term sulphur water indicates a water saturated to a greater or less extent with hydrogen sulphid.

Alum Waters. — These are mineral waters in which the sul¬ phates of aluminum, either as such or in combination with other bases, exist. These waters are extremely styptic in character and have the characteristic taste and effect of weak solutions of alum. This whole class of mineral waters can only be regarded in the light of remedial agents rather than that of beverages.

Alkaline Waters.- — Alkaline waters are mineral waters in which there is dissolved sufficient quantities of carbonate or bicarbonate of soda or similar salts to give the water a distinct alkaline taste and reaction. Alkaline waters are found particu¬ larly in regions where the rainfall is deficient. The natural rain not being sufficient to dissolve all the soluble matters in the soil, these alkaline bodies, products of decomposition of rocks, accumulate. During periods of heavy rainfalls which frequently occur in such regions large quantities of these alkaline salts go into solution and are carried into the earth. From this source are fed springs and streams which furnish the alkaline waters at intervals between the rains. These alkaline waters are esteemed in some localities for their medicinal properties, but are not suitable for consumption as a beverage. Laxative waters usually contain large quantities of sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salts).

Gypsum Waters — This is a form of mineral water in which there is dissolved a large quantity of sulphate of lime, which when it exists in a certain form of crystallization, is known as gypsum. These waters have a peculiar, bitter unpleasant taste, and while used largely in some localities as a beverage they can¬ not be regarded as wholesome when intended for constant use.

Hard Water.- — The term hard is applied to those waters which form a heavy curd with soap. The hardness is due to the solution of excessive quantities of the salts of magnesia and other similar mineral substances. Since these salts are found held in solution by the carbon dioxid which the water carries, the boiling of hard water will precipitate part of the mineral matters thus held. The original hardness of such water is called the total hardness, and the hardness which remains after the precipitation of the bodies above mentioned the permanent hardness. The hardness of water is more important from its technical use perhaps than from its use as a beverage. Hard waters, however, on account of the large quantities of mineral contained therein, are not suitable for permanent consumption. Technically they are objectionable, especially for use in boilers because of the coating of the boilers produced by the precipitation of the mineral matters, often in very firm layers, upon the surfaces of the boiler. This pre¬ cipitation is often seen in vessels used in the kitchen where hard water is employed. Various precipitants have been used in order to diminish the hardness of water and make it suitable for beverages and for technical purposes.

Treatment of Hard Water. — Inasmuch as the carbon dioxid which a water naturally holds adds very greatly to the solvent power of the water for mineral substances, it is evident that all those substances which are held in solution in water containing carbon dioxid may be precipitated by simply boiling the water. This form of hardness is caused chiefly by the sulphates of lime and magnesium, bodies which are more or less soluble in water not containing carbon dioxid. The permanent hardness is cured usually by treating the water with carbonate of soda, which con¬ verts the calcium sulphate into calcium carbonate and precipitates l6 it. The carbonate of soda also acts upon the Epsom salts, that is, magnesium sulphate, converting it into carbonate and thus pre¬ cipitating it. The quantity of carbonate of soda employed should be adjusted to the amount of lime and magnesia sulphates which are present.

If waters are excessively alkaline the treatment with bicar¬ bonate of soda may not leave the water in a fit condition either for drinking or for washing purposes. If there is a large quantity of magnesium sulphate in the water the amount of sodium sulphate formed is so large as to interfere with the emulsification of the soap, thus interfering with the washing process. In such condi¬ tions the use of freshly slaked lime is to be preferred to that of carbonate of soda. The slaked lime converts the magnesium sulphate into magnesium hydrate, which is precipitated, leaving an equivalent amount of calcium sulphate in solution. If the amount of calcium sulphate is considerable, however, a part of it will be precipitated. Thus, it is generally advisable to treat hard water both with carbonate of soda and slaked lime. When lime and carbonate of soda are both used in softening water, it is advisable that the lime should be used first.

According to some authors the permanent hardness is caused chiefly by magnesium chlorid and calcium sulphate.

Method of Removing Hardness. — One of the. common methods of removing hardness is by means of soap. When a soap, which is made with potash and soda as a base, is added to the water containing calcium and magnesium salts the soap is decomposed, and the fatty acid is set free in an insoluble state. It is upon this reaction that the old method of determining hardness, known as Clark’s method, was based. This process has been varied in many ways by chemists in different countries, but the original principle has not been departed from.

The hardness is usually estimated in the number of milli¬ grams of calcium carbonate in a standard volume of water — • usually 100,000 parts. In England and America it is usually determined by the number of grains of calcium carbonate in an imperial gallon in England and a United States gallon in America, which means, in England, the number of grains of calcium carbonate in 70,000 parts, and, in America, in 58,381 parts.

The methods of determining hardness of water will be found in all works on water analysis.

Importance of Determining Hardness. — In so far as drinking water is concerned it is not important to know the hardness apart from the quantity and kind of mineral matters contained. -In other words, for potable purposes, the hardness of water per se is of no consequence. The effect of the mineral matters in solu¬ tion upon the health and digestion are the principal things, in fact, the only things to be considered in so far as drinking purposes are concerned. For technical purposes, however, the matter is quite different. Here it is of the utmost importance to know the character of the dissolved mineral matter. If, for instance, water is to be used in a steam boiler, the rapidity with which it coats the tubes and sides of the boiler is a matter of grave consequence. Often the tubes of the boiler become so coated with the deposited mineral matters as to make it almost impossible to generate steam therein. The boilers are rapidly burned out, great damage is caused, and danger of explosion engendered.

Wherever water is to be used for technical purposes, it should be carefully examined, especially for its temporary hardness.