The grammar of entomology

Front matter

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NEWMAIWS GRAMMAR

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Preface

' 'TEACHERS in science are nearly equally - divided into two classes; those who know too much, and those who know too little. Those of the first class, overloaded with science, cannot admit the possibility of meeting with readers who have none; and, therefore, their essays and introductions are so worded that it requires a tolerable proficiency to understand them. The teachers of the second class fall into the opposite error; they curtail, garble, and popularize the writings of others without understanding them, forgetful that it requires a consummate knowledge of any science to abridge a work which treats of it

Vill PREFACE.

ably and at large. The Author submits, with much humility, that both classes are in error: he submits also that introductory works should be written for those who know nothing of the subject on which they read, and by those who possess, in themselves, some practical knowledge of the subject on which they write.

Tn accordance with these views, the Author has written the following pages; he supposes his reader utterly ignorant of Entomology, and endeavours to show him that it is the History of Insects, and the Physiology of Insects, and the Classification of Insects, and the Art of Preserving Insects: he does not address himself to the professed entomologist;

to such this work will be of little value.

The First Book, entitled History of Insects, is a complete compilation; a series of histories

PREFACE. 1x copied, in many instances verbatim, from the accounts of those authors who relate what themselves have witnessed. Objections will probably be raised to this plan, but the Author thinks without reason. What good purpose would have been answered, had he so curtailed, transposed, and altered these histories, that their very authors should not have known them? On the contrary, is there not a good purpose answered in collecting together the most interesting observations of Huber, Smeathman, Rusticus, Kirby, Spence, Clark, Fries, Bevan, Delta, and Haliday? No concealment is attempted: the authority for each history is given, except when dependent on the Author’s own observation.

The Second Book, entitled Physiology of Insects, is the record of the Author’s own observations: he has given the names employed by other writers, when he could underx PREFACE, stand to what parts they referred, but in names alone has he availed himself of their labours; the facts, the descriptions, are entirely his own. For one chapter, that on the Organs of Circulation, he is indebted to Mr. Bowerbank: by means of that gentleman’s splendid microscope he made the observations therein recorded. Mr. Bowerbank’s account of the same observations has been given in the Entomological Magazine, (vol. i. p. 239): his account and the Author’s somewhat differ, but not sufficiently to cause the slightest doubt of the correctness of either, in the mind of a candid reader. The differences are those of opinion only.

The Third Book, entitled Classification of Insects, may be charged with being too original: it may be said that the Author should have given the views and arrangements of others in preference to his own. He would ask,

PREFACE. _ xi whose system was he to select? That his own is the most simple and the most readily understood, no one will deny: that it is more perfect, or more accurate, or more philosophical, than any other, he does not presume to contend. As for a disquisition on system, it would have been dangerous ground; pleasurable to the writer, but unprofitable to the reader: it would have doubled the size of the volume without adding a fraction to its value.

The Fourth Book, entitled the Preservation of Insects, contains nothing worthy of comment ; it will be useful to those who wish to make it so, and that has been the Author’s only object in writing it.

The want of an easy introductory work on Insects has been obvious to many. __ or the last two years, during which time it has been

Xil PREFACE.

generally known that he has contemplated the task, the Author has received numerous and pressing solicitations to proceed with it: he has at last made the attempt. He has done his best; whether successfully or not, others must decide.

BOOK I.—HISTORY OF INSECTS. Chap

I. History of Insects in general If, -—— The Silkworm . f II]. ——_—-————— Apple Moth . .

VI. —— Deere seg « Vil. ———-—_-—— Ichneumon é Vill. ———_-—. Burying Beetle. .

IX. ———— Apple Weevil . .

X. —— Earwig XI. ———_——_——- Locust : XII. Coccus of the Vine XIII. Pop- Bris ay iksiniee's xIV. ———— Ant Lion oa White Ant XVI. Concluding Observations

Book Ii.—physiology Of Insects

. Physiology of Insects in general . . Of the Organs of Support in general in the head .

. Of the Wings and Legs of Insects . Of the Characters of Surface . Of Muscles, the Organs of Motion .

Of Nerves, the Organs of Sensation

“ay OF - - 106 ao A2k

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- 133 137,

X1V TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chap Page

VIII. Of the Alimentary Canal, or Organs of Digestion 143

IX. Of the Organs of Circulation . ; - 147

X. Of the Organs of Respiration . . - 152

XI. Concluding Observations : . 156 BOOK III.—CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

I. Classification of Insects in general . 163 II. Lepidoptera . . 1738 iI, ———— Diptera. . - . 181 Iv. ————-——— Hymenoptera . 198 Vv. ——- Coleoptera . 218 Vi. ———_ Orthoptera . 239 VII. Hemiptera . ~ 242

Vill. —-—— Neuroptera . - + wee Ix. —-—— Of Ticklers, Bee- Parkalted: Fleas, Thysanura, Anoplura; and concluding Observations . . . 250 BOOK IV.—PRESERVATION OF INSECTS.

I. Apology for the Collector of Insects . 259

Il. Of the Dress and Instruments for the collection of Insects ° : - 262 III. Of capturing Insects . ee . 268 IV. Of killing and setting Insects. . Rs

V. Of Entomological Cabinets - 282 VI. Of Entomological Books . 287 VII. Of investigating Insects ~ 294

VIII. Of Entomological Societies . . 298

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE I. To face the Title of Book I. represents the Ant-lion at the bottom of his pit. (See Book I. Chapter XIV.) II. To face the Title of Book II. Fig. 1. Copper Butterfly (Lycena dispar), caterpillar (/arva), 4. 2. Copper Butterfly, chrysalis (pupa), 4. 3. Copper Butterfly, perfect insect (émago), 4. 4. Head of Copper Butterfly. a Eye (Oculus), 385. o 4 Blade of feeler jaw (Jacinta), 411, 412. u Lower lip (labium), 394. & Labial feelers (labipalpi), 398. 5. Horse Bot (@strus Equi), grub (larva), 69. 6. Ditto (Ditto), chrysalis (pupa), 72. 7. Ditto (Ditto), perfect insect, (tmago), 73. ' §. Mouth of the Gad-fly (Tabanus bovinus). a Upper lip (Jabrum), 391. e Tongue (lingua), 406. #i Mandibles (mandibule). 423. 425. o 4 Blade of feeler jaw (/acinia), 411. 413. 66 Maxillary feeler (maxipalpus), 422. u 4 Tip of lower lip (digula), 399. 401. 9. Ichneumon of the Tiger-moth (Pimpla Instigator), maggot (/arva), 131. 10. Ichneumon of the Tiger-moth, chrysalis (pupa), 134. 11. Ichneumon of the Tiger-moth, perfect insect (imago), 124. 12. Mouth of the Ichneumon. a Upper lip (Jabrum,) 391. 2 Mandible (mandibula), 423, 428. 02 Disk of feeler jaw (maailla), 409. o 3 Feeler bearer (palpifer), 410.

XVI EXPLANATION OF PLATEs.

PLATE II. Fig. 12. 0 4 Blade (lacinia), 411. 6 Helmet (galea), 418. 420, 6 Maxillary feeler (maxipalpus), aoe u 2 Lower lip proper (/abium), 394, u4 Tip of lower lip (liguda), 399. 401, @ Labial feeler (labipalpus), 398. III. To face the Title of Book III. Fig. 1. (Orchesia micans), grub (larva). 2. (Ditto), chrysalis (papa), aoe (Ditto), perfect insect (émago). 4. Common Cricket (Acheta domestica), (larva). 5. Lower lip of Common Cricket (labiwm), 394, wu 1 Insertion (Insertio), 395, #% 2 Lip proper (labium Proprium), 396. wu 3 Feeler bearer (palpiger), 397. u4 Tip of the lower lip (ligula), 399, 405. a Labial feeler (labipaipus), 398. 6. Painted Plant-bug (Acanthosoma picta), perfect insect (tmago). 7. Pearl-fly (Perla bicaudata), (larva), 8. Feeler jaw of the Pearl-fly, 02 Disk (maxilla), 409, o4 Blade (lacinia), 411. 6 Helmet (galea), 418. 6 Maxillary feeler (maxipalpus), 422. 9. Fore wing (proala) of the Pearl-fly, 441, 10. Hind leg (metapes) of Ditto, 451, b The hip (coxa), divided by a line, 454, d The thigh ( femur), its first and second joint being minute, and adjointing the coxa, 455. f The shank (tibia), 456. g The foot (tarsus), 460. h The claws (wnguiculi), 462. k The little cushion (pulvinulus), 465. IV. To face the Title of Book IV. Fig. 1. Water net, 849. 2. Clap net, 851. 3. Forceps, 848.

- Bent pin, 899.

- Minute insect mounted, 893.

- Beetle pinned, 887. \ . Vial for minute Hymenoptera, 854. - Larva cage, 874.

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Ant-Lion at the bottom of hi's Pit,

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OF mxZ&NWTOMOLO EG Y, BOOK 1.

HISTORY OF INSECTS.

Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise.

BOOK I.

HISTORY OF INSECTS.

Chapter I. History Of Insects In General

1. Tue history of an insect, like the history of a man, is an account of life from first to last, from birth to death. Insects are so constituted, that the history of an individual is the history of its race : climate, season, or circumstance, exercises little power of creating differences among them ; a bee is as essentially a bee, and a butterfly a butterfly, at the equator as at the poles; and in either situations performs the same acts.

2. Insects of all kinds and in all situations resemble each other in these points :—they proceed from the parent as eggs, the eggs are hatched and become grubs, in which state they eat, increase rapidly in size, and are invariably without wings ;

B2 the grubs, when full grown, become for a time motionless; their skin opens, and from it comes forth the perfect insect, which has four wings, and which does not increase in size.

3. In a very great number of insects, the grub changes its skin, and completely alters its form on becoming motionless; indeed, almost as great a change in appearance takes place, as in the change from the grub to the perfect state; when this is the case, the motionless state is called the chrysalis.

4. Thus we have four stages in the life of an insect, four states which it is necessary thoroughly to understand; the egg (evwm) which is motionless, and apparently lifeless; the grub (larva), which is active, but without wings, voracious, and grows rapidly ; the chrysalis (pupa), which is quite motionless, and which does not occur in all insects; the perfect insect (¢mago), which is active, has wings, does not grow, and which, by laying eggs, perpetuates its kind.

5. The names egg, larva, pupa and imago, are the terms generally employed in descriptions ; the three last answer equally well for Latin or English, but it must be borne in mind that the words grub, maggot, and caterpillar, are synonymous with the term darva ; and perfect insect, fly, &c. are synonymous with the term imago ; and the English and Latin words are used in English descriptions almost indifferently.

6. These transformations are in reality nothing more than a continual casting of the outer skin ; the larva often casts its skin four or five times without any very remarkable change of form ; every casting of the skin is a step towards arriving at ultimate perfection. In every insect the skin must be cast a certain number of times, and the last casting brings it to maturity.

7. On account of their small size, it is difficult to find common examples of the eggs of insects ; those laid on meat by the blue-bottle fly must be known to many; the silk-worm’s eggs again are not unknown; but the generality of insects’ eggs are so concealed and so little conspicuous, that they are found with difficulty.

8. Examples of larve are numerous; the maggots found in wasps’ nests, and used in fishing; the maggots in apples and in nuts ; the maggots in cheese, and in decaying substances; and the caterpillars, which devour our cabbages, which spin webs on our apple, pear, and plum trees, in the spring, are familiar to us all: these are insects in the larva state.

9. The pupa state is more difficult to find, because insects generally crawl away into crevices or underground, and hide themselves before changing to this state; an angular pupa of a green colour, with small black spots, which produces a common white butterfly, may, however, be continually seen on palings and walls of gardens, and the smooth brown pupz of moths are continually dug up in gardens.

10. The cmago, or perfect state, is exemplified in butterflies, moths, gnats, flies, wasps, bees, ants, beetles, grasshoppers, earwigs, cockroaches, bugs, fleas, may-flies, and dragon-flies. All descriptions of insects in scientific works, relate to the imago state, unless the contrary is distinctly expressed.

11. All perfect insects have two feelers (antenne) rising from their heads, like horns; four wings, the first pair called fore wings (proale), the second pair hind wings (metale) ; six legs in pairs, the first pair called fore legs (propedes), the second pair, middle legs (mesopedes), and the third pair, hind legs (metapedes).

12. These parts are believed always to exist, yet are sometimes very indistinct ; when they are conspicuous, they are said to be developed ( pate-~ facti), when small, and scarcely performing their usual functions, rudimental (incipientes), when undiscovered, and therefore not possibly applicable to their usual functions, obsolete (obsoleti).

13. The mode in which the life of an insect is passed, differs very widely in the states of its existence: it often happens that the larva inhabits the water, and the imago the air; sometimes the larva inhabits the water, the pupa inhabits the earth, and the imago returns to the water. The following chapters will in some degree exemplify this.

HISTORY OF INSECTS. vi

Chapter II. History Of The Silkworm

CASS ccccresen Lepidoptera. Genus ...... Bombyx. Order \.c.005 Bombycites. Species...... Mori.

14. Siux has been avaluable article of commerce, and a favourite one for dress from time immemorial ; the archives of China are said to speak of its existence five thousand years ago, but the period at which it was first appropriated to the uses of man cannot be traced.

15. The manufacture of silk, in this country alone, is supposed to find constant employment and means of support for about five hundred thousand human beings; in France, Germany, Italy, Turkey, and the continent of Asia, it is also an article of great commercial importance.

16. Silk is a native production of China and India; it was introduced into Europe a.p. 550, by two monks, who brought the eggs of the fo) silk-worm, in hollow canes, to Constantinople, and there succeeded in rearing the worms and obtaining their produce.

17. Silk is now produced abundantly in Europe, principally in Murcia, in Spain, the south of France, and in Italy ; in Hungary it is cultivated, but with less success; and in England, probably from the want of sufficient warmth, all attempts hitherto made have proved unsuccessful.

18. Silk is spun by a caterpillar, which feeds on the leaves of the mulberry-tree; jt is called the silk-worm; it comes from eggs laid by a moth in the autumn of the preceding year.

19. In May the eggs are hatched, and produce small black caterpillars, less than the tenth of an inch in length; these increase daily in size, and gradually alter their colour till they become nearly white.

20. In this country, the caterpillar takes fifty - six days to arrive at perfection, during which time it invariably sheds its skin as many as four, and occasionally five times; the cause of this occasional additional change is not known. After every change the caterpillar is lighter in colour, — and has a larger head than previous to the change ; it spins during five or six days, making about sixty-two days.

21. In warmer climates the caterpillar arrives at its full growth in forty-seven days, and has finished spinning in five more, making together fifty-two days; these may be counted thus :— hatching to first change, seven days; changing, two days; before the second change, seven days ; changing, two days; before the third change, seven days; changing, three days; before the fourth change, seven days; changing, four days ; before beginning to spin, eight days; spinning, five days.

22. When the caterpillar is about to change its skin, it ceases to eat, holds its head up stiff, and appears ill and sulky; the new head is plainly to be discovered through the transparent skin, behind the old one, and rather of a triangular shape—the apex of the triangle being uppermost; after remaining in this state two or three days, as abeve stated, the skin opens behind the head, which cracks longitudinally, and is cast with the skin; the caterpillar then twists itself from side to side, and writhes about, while the skin gradually slips from its body, and comes off at the tail.

23. Whilst the silk-worms are feeding, they should be kept very clean, and abundantly supplied with fresh leaves; open trays, made of pasteboard, are very convenient for holding them; and from these, if supplied with food, they never wander.

24, Care should be taken to preserve silk-worms from birds and mice, both of which are excessively fond of them; the influence of the sun is highly injurious to them, as are also cold north and east winds; but plenty of air in warm weather is beneficial. The leaves should be given to them perfectly dry; if brought from a distance, they preserve their freshness for many days in a tin box, or on the cold bricks or stones of a cellar.

25. After the fourth change, the silk-worms require constant watching; twice a day they should be carefully looked over, and those ready to spin picked out, and placed in little cells, made of writing-paper, about as large as one’s thumb, open at one end, and closely screwed up at the other; their paper cells may be pinned to lines crossing a room, and placed touching each other on the line.

26. The period of a silk-worm being ready to spin is plainly indicated by its ceasing to eat, and becoming suddenly more transparent and of a yellow colour ; it will also begin to spin a few threads of silk among the leaves, or in a corner of the tray.

27. The silk-worm, when placed in the cell, spins a few loose connecting threads, attached to every side of the cell: it then forms a regular oval ball of silk, which is suspended in the centre of the cell, and in the interior of which it continues to work for five days.

28. If the cells containing the spinning silk-worms, are placed regularly on the line in the order in which they begin spinning, then there will occur no difficulty in taking them off, in the succession in which they stand, as the first in order on the line will be the first requiring to be wound off.

29. After a silk-worm has been ten days in its cell, its cocoon of yellow silk will be compact and complete; this must be taken out of the cell, the exterior or waste silk stripped off, until a single thread runs by itself; an operation which will be much assisted by occasionally dipping the cocoon in warm water.

30. When the single threads of half a dozen of these cocoons are found, they may be guided with one hand on a small reel, which is constructed for the purpose, and may be turned with the other hand, the cocoons at the same time floating on:a basin of warm water; by a little management in separating the thread, a great number may thus be wound off at the same time.

31. When so much of the silk has been wound off, that the remainder appears of a thinner, paler, and inferior quality, the thread should be broken, the remaining portion of the cocoon is weak, gummy, and of little value; it should be taken out of the water, and laid aside to Beene its getting entangled with the others.

32. Within the cocoonis the cht aha! from which the future moth is produced; these may be thrown on a tray containing bran, which absorbs the water which would otherwise remain on them after their long soaking. When silk-worms are reared for profit, there are a far greater number of chrysalides than are wanted; these may be given to fowls, which are exceedingly fond of them, and to which they afford a wholesome and nutritious diet.

33. In a fortnight or three weeks after the winding of the silk, some of the chrysalides will be found cracking and opening, and the perfect moth will then appear: these are small sluggish creatures, of a pale buff colour, seldom leaving the tray, mat, or paper, on which they are placed, and on which the females lay their eggs.

34. As regards the hatching of the eggs, it is important to know that this may be retarded as long as the owner pleases, by subjection to a low temperature; and it will be well for those who purpose keeping silk-worms for the sake of profit to defer the hatching of the eggs until the mulberry-trees are sufficiently forward to ensure a constant supply of food.

35. The usual time for the hatching of silk-worms’ eggs in this country is about the 12th of May, but a fortnight later is much better; for at that time the mulberry-trees have not generally put forth their leaves, and a great difficulty constantly occurs in procuring food.

36. No other food than mulberry leaves, as far as we have yet learned, affords to silk-worms wholesome nutriment; lettuce, dog-wood, and black-currant leaves, have been repeatedly tried, but without success.

Chapter III. History Of The Apple Moth.*

CLASS oa caer Lepidoptera. Genus ...... Cydia. Order” sascns Tortricites. Species...... Pomonana.

37. Tue apple-moth is a beautiful little creature; its wings are studded with silvery shining specks, as though they were inlaid with precious gems: it is the most beautiful of the beautiful tribe to which it belongs, yet, from it shabits not being known, it is seldom seen in the moth state, and the apple-grower knows no more than the man in the moon to what cause he is indebted for his basketsful of worm-eaten windfalls in the stillest weather.

38. To find the moth in the day-time, the trunks of the apple-trees should be carefully looked over; or if your orchard be surrounded by a wooden fence, it may frequently be found sitting against it, with its pretty wings neatly folded round it.

* Rusticus, in the Entomological Magazine.

39. Towards evening, in fact, just at sunset, it begins to move, and may then be seen hovering about the little apples, which, by the time the moth leaves the chrysalis, the middle of June, are well knit, and consequently fit for the reception of its eggs, which it lays in the eyes, one only in each, by introducing its long ovipositor between the leaves of the calyx, which form a tent above it that effectually shields it from the inclemency of the weather, or any other casualty.

40. As soon as the egg hatches, the little grub gnaws a hole in the crown of tie apple, and soon buries itself in its substance; and it is worthy of remark that the rind of the apple, as if to afford every facility to the destroyer, is thinner here than in any other part, and consequently more easily pierced: the apple most commonly attacked is the codling, a large early sort, which ripens in July and August.

41. The grub, controlled by an unvarying instinct, eats into the apple obliquely downwards, and by thus avoiding the core and pips in no way hinders its growth: at first it makes but slow progress, being little bigger than a thread, but after a fortnight its size and its operations have much increased; it has now eaten half way down the apple, and the position of the hole at the top, if the apple continue upright, or nearly so, is inconvenient for a purpose it has up to this time been used for, that is, as a pass to get rid of its little pellets of excrement, which are something like fine sawdust or coarse sand.

42. Another communication with the outer air is for this purpose required, and it must be so constructed as to allow the power of gravity to assist In keeping it clear; it is accordingly made directly downwards towards that part of the apple which is lowest, and thus the trouble of thrusting the pellets upwards through the eye of the apple is saved, and a constant admission given to a supply of air without any labour.

43. The hole now made is not, however, sufficiently open for an observer to gain by its means any knowledge of what is going on within; this is only to be obtained by cutting open a number of the apples as they gradually advance towards ripeness; the hole is, however, very easily seen, from its always having adhering to it on the outside an accumulation of the little grains which have been thrust through.

44. Having completed this work, the grub returns towards the centre of the apple, where he feeds at his ease. When within a few days of being full fed, he for the first time enters the core through a round hole gnawed in the hard, horny substance which always separates the pips from the pulp of the fruit, and the destroyer now finds himself in that spacious chamber which codlings in particular always have in their centre.

45. From this time he eats only the pips, never again tasting the more common pulp which hitherto had satisfied his unsophisticated palate : now nothing less than the highly-flavoured, aromatic kernels will suit his tooth, and on these for a few days he feasts in luxury.

46. Somehow or other, the pips of an apple are connected with its growth, as the heart of an animal with its life;—-injure the heart, an animal dies: injure the pips, an apple falls: whether the fall of his house gives the tenant warning to quit, is not known, but quit he does, and that almost immediately ; he leaves the eore, crawls along his breathing and clearing-out gallery, the mouth of which, before nearly closed, he now gnaws into a smooth, round hole, which will permit him free passage without hurting his fat, soft, round body; then out he comes, and for the first time in his life finds himself in the open air.

47. He now wanders about on the ground till he finds the stem of a tree: up this he climbs, and hides himself in some nice little crack in the bark : we should remark, that the fall of the apple, the exit of the grub, and his wandering to this place of security, usually take place in the nighttime. In this situation he remains without stirring for a day or two, as if torrest himself after the uncommon fatigue of a two yards’ march; he then gnaws away the bark a little in order to get further in out of the way of observation; and having made a smooth chamber big enough for his wants, he spins a beautiful little milk-white silken case, in which, after a few weeks, he becomes a chrysalis.

48. In this state he remains throughout the winter and until the following June, unless some unlucky, blackheaded tit, running up the trunk, peeping into every cranny, and whistling out his’ merry see-saw, happen to spy him, in which case he is plucked without ceremony from his retreat, and his last moments are spent in the bird’s crop ; but supposing no such ill-fortune betide him, by the middle of June he is again on the wing, and hovering round the young apples on a midsummer evening as before.

49. By burning weeds in your gardens at this time of year you will effectually drive away this little moth. If you have trees, the crops of which you value, make a smoking (mind, not a blazing) fire under each; it will put yon to some inconvenience if your garden be near your house, but the apples will repay you for that.

Chapter IV. History Of The Mosquito.*

50. Tux eggs of the mosquito (Simulia), and the mode in which they are laid, appear to be at present unknown ; there is, however, little doubt but that, like those of other gnats, they are deposited on the surface of the water, and in that situation are hatched by the warmth of the sun combined with the moisture of the water.

51. The larva is found on the stems of water-plants (Phellandrium, &c.); on those portions which are always covered by the water: it is long, cylindrical, considerably thickened posteriorly, and nearly transparent: its head is distinctly separated from the body, and is of an oblong form; it has four jaws moving horizontally, each bifid at the tip, and two little horns in the usual place of

antennee, inserted in the front of the head, rather towards each side: each of these is composed of two joints, the first, or basal joint, stout, the second, or apical one, divided into many rays, which fold back on the first joint: it has two very small eyes on each side of the head.

52. The body of the larva is divided into twelve segments besides the head; of these, the second is incrassated, and furnished below with a retractile conical foot; the last segment is very minute, and furnished with two small prehensile feet: the air tubes, so very plainly seen in other aquatic larvee, are totally wanting; neither is there the least appearance of spiracles or breathing holes in the sides.