Sylvester Graham's lectures on the science of human life

Front matter

Med

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FOURTH EDITION.

Contents

Page.

Editor's Preface hi.

Memoir v.

II

Lecture II. (47 — 111) is occupied in discussing the forms and properties of inorganic matter.

Lecture III. (112 — 138) treats of the relation of organic matter to the inorganic world; and of the powers peculiar to animal , as distinguished from vegetable bodies.

139. The fondness of chemists to account for the results of vitality upon chemical principles has led them to retard science, by preventing that investigation ©f the vital forces which is necessary to a full ascertainment of the laws of life. No organic substance can be separated from the vital control, and subjected to experiment, without so altering the substance as to render it impossible for the chemist to affirm what is true of the processes of the living system. It is much more accurate for chemists to say what inorganic forms result from a chemical analysis of organic substances, than it is to state that organic substances are composed of such and sucb chemical elements. We have no right to assume that vital forces possess no higher energies than are exerted by chemical agents ; nor that their principles resemble those of inorganic chemistry. Vitality decomposes all those substances which chemists call elements ; and, in arranging its organic structures, its operations are

GRAHAM'8 SCIENCE OP HUMAN LIFE.

different from those of inorganic chemistry. It is hypothetical to assert that oxygen) carbon, hydrogen, azote, and other elements, as such, combine to form the various structures of the organic system. Nevertheless, it remains true that the differences between forms of matter consist in, and spring from, the laws which govern their component particles and constitute the peculiar nature of each form.

140. The nature op things depends in no degree on the matter of

WHICH THEY ARE FORMED, BUT ENTIRELY ON THE CONSTITUTIONAL LAWS OF ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURE, FROM WHICH THE PECULIAR PROPERTIES OP THINGS RESULT.

IV

145. All solid bodies are formed from fluids. In the mineral kingdom, the structure of some solid masses indicates a previous state of fusion, while others indicate a state of aqueous fluidity.

146. In the vegetable kingdom, all solid substances are formed from the sap, which is little else than water, and is gradually changed into vegetable structure by the powers of the vegetable economy. In the animal kingdom, all the solid substances composing the body are formed from the watery fluid called chyle, which is elaborated from the food, converted into blood, and arranged into solids by the animal vitality.

147. When chyle, blood, bone, muscle, &c., have been elaborated by the vital economy, chemists subject them to analysis, and denominate the substances obtained the organic elements ; and, taking these results of the analysis of dead matter, account for the operations of the living economy on the principles of inorganic chemistry, and teach what elements combine to form the organic system. But most of their reasoning assumes that the decomposition of dead matter demonstrates the vital composition of living matter. But if chemical elements, as such, combine to form any one substance, why is it not possible for science to make any approach to vital processes i

148. The human bone is composed of gelatin, phosphate of lime, &c., and these are formed by oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, azote, phosphorus, &c. But can philosophers compose bone ? Or do they believe there is any power by which the bone can be composed except the vital power of the system? Whether phosphoric acid and lime, as such, enter into the vital composition of the bone it is not possible to prove ; and science affords less evidence of the fact than it does that the economy by which bone is formed was originated by an intelligent Creator. Nor would it be easier for chemical physiologists to demonstrate that the gelatin in animal bodies is formed from the blood by a process which abstracts a portion of its carbon, as such; nor can it be proved that any chemical element, as such, passes through the vital operations, retaining its peculiar nature, or without foregoing the qualities it possessed as an inorganic substance.

149. All we know is — that, when substances are received into the organs of the system, they are converted into chyme, chyle, and blood, and from the blood into solids and fluids, possessing each its peculiar properties ; the solids to form the organs of the system, and the fluids in such conditions as the vital domain requires.

CELLULAR, MUSCULAR, AND NERVOUS TISSUES. 7

150. To ascertain the properties and operations of the living body is the business of the physiologist. When the body is dead, the dissection of its organs is the business of the anatomist ; and the analysis of the dead matter into elements is, appropriately and only, the business of the chemist.

151. Chemistry can tell us what forms of inorganic matter result from a chemical analysis of dead animal matter ; but she cannot tell us what forms compose the living organ. She cannot inform us & priori whether mineral, vegetable, or animal substances are adapted to the alimentary wants of man ; nor direct us in the selection of substances nourishing to the body. She can decompose the atmosphere, but cannot tell us which of its elements qualify it to support animal respiration. If in the stomach foreign acids be generated by inorganic affinities, chemistry can inform us what will neutralise those acids, but cannot tell us whether the alkalies will not do more mischief to the organ than the acids, or what is salutary to the vital weal. This we learn from the living body.

152. While, therefore, all honour is paid to chemistry, the sciences of physiology and therapeutics should be cautious how they invoke her aid. Chemistry can assist the physiologist in ascertaining the external relations of the body, but more she cannot do with that certainty which should inspire confidence.

153. The most simple form of matter composing the body is chyle, elaborated from the food in the alimentary canal. This is a thin, pearl-coloured fluid, and, by analysis, is almost wholly resolved into water. As it proceeds along the vitalising tubes, it becomes more albuminous and fibrinous ; and with scarcely any difference whether the food be vegetable or animal ; but in regard to vital properties differing considerably

154. When chyle enters the blood-vessels, it approaches nearly in character to blood, which is itself apparently a simple fluid, the constituents of which are albuminous ; and of which four-fifths may be resolved to water.

155. From blood the vital economy elaborates all the substances composing the body, constructing the blood-vessels and the alimentary tube, with the organs of nutrition, and the limbs and organs of external relation.

156. The solid matter thus elaborated from blood may be reduced to three kinds of substances — the gelatinous, the fibrinous, and the albuminous ; which, in physiology, are denominated the cellular, the muscular, and the nervous TISSUES.

157. Some physiologists assure us that the structure of the tissues is a delicate arrangement of minute globules, and that this is alike true of the cellular, muscular, and nervous tissues.

158. The gelatinous substance, in its forms of cellular tissue, membranes, tendons, ligaments, cartilages, &c., is the most simple of the animal solids, and the lowest in vital endowment. Its properties are cohesion, flexibility, elasticity ; and, in some forms, extensibility.

159. The muscular tissue is of a higher order of vital endowment than the cellular. It possesses the vital properties of excitability and contractility under the action of stimulants.

160. It is impossible to say how far we can subject the tissues to analytical investigation without effecting an essential change in their nature ; therefore graham’s science of human life.

we cannot affirm that the substance on which we experiment is the same as when living. It is under this disadvantage we labour when we attempt to ascertain the character of the solids, or the results of vital action ; and it is under this disadvantage that physiologists affirm that the nervous tissue is albumenous.

161. The nervous is the highest organised matter, and is endowed with wonderful properties. In descriptions of anatomy, it is said to consist of two substances. The one called cineritious, because the colour of ashes ; sometimes cortical, because on the surface of the brain like the bark of a tree ; and sometimes pulpy.

162. The other substance is called medullary, or the white substance, and more recently it has been called the fibrous substance. It is firmer than the pulpy, and is arranged in the form of minute fibres.

163. In every portion of the nervous apparatus the pulpy substance is associated with the fibrous ; sometimes investing the surface, as in the brain, sometimes internally, as in the spinal marrow.

164. The powers of the nervous tissue are the nervous and sensorial. To the nervous belong the vital properties concerned in the functions oi digestion, absorption, respiration, circulation, secretion, structure, and the production of heat. The transmission of impressions to the centre of perception, and of stimulus to the muscles, have also been classed among the nervous properties, but it is questionable whether the former function does not belong to the sensorial power.

165. To the sensorial power belong consciousness, sensation, the perception of impressions and affections, reflection, volition, and faculties called intellectual.

1 66. Sensibility is generally considered the fundamental sensorial power ; yet the brain is destitute of the power of sensation. Sensibility, in the physiological signification, is the power of sensation in the tissue, and sensation is an affection of the tissue, of which the centre of perception is not only conscious, but refers it to some locality. Sensation, therefore, not only makes the mind conscious of a body, but of particular parts of the body. This is not true of the sensorial power. We may sink into reverie, and be only conscious of a mental existence. We think, and are conscious of our thoughts, but not of their machinery, still less do we refer them as sensations to the brain. At such times we are not conscious of a brain, nor anything of a corporeal nature. To say, therefore, that sensibility is the fundamental sensorial power, is to give the term a very broad signification, and to confound things between which there are important differences.

167. These three tissues — the cellular, muscular, and nervous — compose all the organs of the system, and each carries its peculiar properties, which become the principles of functional power in the organs.

168. The cellular tissue constitutes a framework to the body, giving shape to each organ, and entering so extensively into every part that if the other substances were abstracted, the cellular tissue would preserve the outlines and proportions of each.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OP THE BODY.

169. Every bone partakes of this in a cellular arrangement, the interstices of which are filled with a fluid, separated from the blood, which becomes hard,, and gives solidity to the texture. Some of the bones are united by thi* substance in the form of elastic cartilage, or fibro-cartilage, as the vertebrae ol the back, the ribs to the sternum, &c. The articulating surfaces of the bones are also sheathed with cartilage. The joints are secured, and different bones bound together by another form of the same substance, called ligament. This last is expanded into a fibrous membrane, which surrounds every bone,, also the cartilages, and forms sheaths for the tendons.

170. Besides this distribution to the bones, cartilages, and tendons, the cellular tissue forms sheaths for every muscle and every fibre, and composes the tendons and expansions which connect the muscles with the bones. Every fibre of the nervous system is also enveloped in a sheath of cellular tissue, and, the brain and spinal marrow are wrapped in a texture of the same substance.

171. The different tissues are connected by the cellular ; and each organ is. enveloped, every internal surface lined, and the external surface covered, with, membranes composed of this substance.

172. The contractility of the muscular tissue is the only element of motion in the body. All motion depends on this property of the muscle. Hence the muscular tissue is distributed where motion is required. The bones are incapable of motion within themselves, and consequently no muscular tissue enters into their texture. But they serve as levers, and the muscles of voluntary motion are attached to them in such a manner that the contraction of the muscles produces the motions required. The windpipe, meat-pipe, stomach, and intestines are also furnished with muscular tissue. The heart is muscular, and the diaphragm is composed of muscular tissue. Several other organs are supplied with this tissue. The arteries and veins are said to be destitute of it, and yet they possess the power of contractility.

173. The nerves preside over the vital economy, and are distributed to every part of the system, accompanying the blood-vessels, and associated with every muscular fibre.

174. The blood-vessels with their nerves are first produced, and these commence the structure of the alimentary tube with its organs, each according to its office, and the powers required for its special function. At first the organs are so many distinct formations, which become connected, and finally so associated as to form a single system. The spinal column and ribs form the trunk, which supports and protects them. The head, the upper and lower extremities, the organs of special sense, the skin, hair, and nails follow in their order.

175. For the protection of the organs, and other purposes, the body i» divided by the diaphragm into two apartments. The upper is called the thorax, and the lower the abdomen. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs, heart, and meat-pipe. The abdominal cavity contains the liver, stomach, intestinal canal, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, &c.

176. The serous membrane lines both cavities, and is folded so as to envelope each organ and confine it to its proper place. Thus, in the chest, the serous membrane, here called the pleura, surrounds each lung, passes across, forming a double partition, called the mediastinum, and encloses each

B graham’s science of human life.

lung in a sack on the right and left side of the thorax. The two sheets which form the partition are separated at the lower part to receive the heart. This organ is also surrounded by its own membrane, the pericardium. The serous membrane which lines the abdomen, and each organ of that cavity, has the name of peritoneum ; but its parts are designated by the organs invested. Thus, the part which embraces the intestinal tube, and holds its convolutions •in their position, is the mesentery, mesocolon, &c.

177. In regard to the anatomy and physiology of the serous membrane there is difference of opinion. Some describe it as supplied with vessels containing a colourless fluid, performing the office of absorbents ; and this they consider proved by the fact that the serous membrane is capable of inflammation, as in pleurisy, peritonitis, &c. On the other hand, it is asserted that this membrane is destitute of vessels and nerves, and that fluids pass through it by infiltration. These deny that this me mbrane can be the seat of inflammation. They contend that the diseases have their seat in the tissue, and such is the thinness of the membrane that the inflamed aspect is seen through.

178. In a healthy state the serous membrane has no sensibility. Its surface is smooth, and lubricated by a fluid which is exhaled from its vessels, or passes through it from the subjacent vessels. By these means contiguous organs are enabled to move with ease, and adhesion is prevented. On the side of the membrane, next to the organs and the parts which it lines, it is covered with a spongy substance, which contains adipose matter. In fleshy people quantities of fat accumulate in this tissue (508).

179. The bones are of various forms and sizes. Some are hollow, and their cavities lined by a membrane, which contains an unctuous marrow. The number of bones in the body is two hundred and fifty-six ; of which fifty-six belong to the trunk, sixty-six to the head, sixty-eight to the upper, and sixty-six to the lower extremities.

180. Of the bones of the trunk, twenty-nine are employed in the construction of the spinal column ; twenty-four, called the true vertebrae, the other five the false vertebrae, or the sacrum and coccyx ; concerned also in the formation of the pelvis at the bottom of the trunk, the base on which the vertebral column rests. Of the true vertebrae, seven belong to the neck, twelve to the back, and five to the loins, distinguished by the terms cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebrae. These have somewhat the shape of a ring, with a rounded body in front, and several projections from behind ; one running directly back, called the spine, and two obliquely backward, with which the ribs form one of their points of attachment. The vertebrae are so constructed that they form a support to the body, and a canal for the spinal marrow. Between these •bones is an elastic substance, which unites them, so as to give the column considerable flexibility, and secure all the supporting power of a solid bone. In the natural position the spinal column is curved ; and such is its elasticity, that an individual is sometimes an inch taller in the morning than at night.

181. Attached to each side of the twelve dorsal vertebrae are twelve ribs, which, with the breastbone, form the cavity of the chest. Most of the ribs have a double attachment behind, one to the vertebrae and one to the oblique projection. They droop so that their anterior extremities are lower than their

BONES, CARTILAGES, LIGAMENTS.

posterior. The upper seven, called true ribs, are united to the breastbone by cartilages. Of the remaining five, called false ribs, three arc joined to the superior ribs by cartilages, and the two lowest, not connected, are called floating ribs.

182. Of the sixty-six bones which belong to the head, seven form the skull, which rests upon the spinal column, and receives the spinal marrow through a large opening. Four small bones constitute a part of the apparatus of each ear. The rest, beside the thirty-two teeth, form the jaws, cheeks, nose, palate, etc. There are in each jaw sixteen teeth, on each side two front, one corner, and five cheek teeth.

183. To the upper extremities belong, on each side, the shoulder-blade, collar-bone, long bone of the upper arm, two bones of the fore-arm, eight small bones of the wrist, five of the body of the hand, fourteen of the fingers and thumb, and the small appendage to the thumb-joint.

184. To the lower extremities, on each side, the hip-bone, long bone of the thigh, two bones of the lower leg, knee-pan, seven small bones of the ankle and heel, five bones of the instep, fourteen of the toes, and the small appendage to the great toe-joint.

185. Before the solidity of the bony structure is required, the plUce of the bones is occupied by cartilages the shape of the bones. As the time approaches when the functions of the system require protection, ossification commences, and continues till completed. As life advances the bones become hard, and in age, and some kinds of disease, very brittle. Where two bones are united, cartilages are interposed, and form the union ; in some cases firmly, as in the sutures of the skull, in other cases admitting flexion, as in the backbone and ribs. In all the movable joints the articulating surfaces are covered with highly-polished cartilages, continually lubricated by a fluid called synovia, by which the joints act with ease and little friction. Cartilage is employed separately in some of the cavities, as the larynx, wind-pipe, part of the nose, &c. The cartilages are, like the bones, surrounded by a membrane called the perichondrium. Anatomists differ in regard to the endowments of the cartilages. There is no reason to believe that they have any other nerves than those which belong to the vessels concerned in their nutrition (230) ; they have in health no sensibility (294), nor do their vessels contain any blood. In early life the cartilages are soft, they gradually become harder, and in age they lose their elasticity, become brittle, and some of them converted into bone, especially those of the fixed joints.

186. By this interposition of cartilaginous substance many advantages are gained. Besides the flexibility of the spinal column, the yielding of the ribs and other bones, friction is prevented in the joints, and elasticity is imparted to the frame, assisting in running, jumping, etc., and protecting us by breaking the force of blows, falls, &c.

187. The ligaments consist of strong fibres of cellular tissue. They connect the ends of bones and cartilages, secure the joints to prevent displacement, and allow necessary motion. Some are situated within the joint, like a central cord or pivot ; some surround it like a hood, and contain the lubricating fluid ; some are in the form of bands at the side.

188. The ligaments bind the lower jaw to the temporal bones, the head to graham’s science of human life.

the neck, extend the length of the backbone in powerful bands, bind the ribs to the vertebrso and to the breast-bone, and this to the collar-bone, and this to the shoulder-blade, and this to the bone of the upper arm, and this to the bones of the fore-arm at the elbow, and these to the wrist, and these to each other and to the hands, and these last to the fingers and thumb. In the same manner they bind the bones of the pelvis, and the hip-bones to the thigh, and this to the bones of the leg, and so on to the ankle, foot, and toes. Thus the osseous system is united, in the most admirable manner, so as to possess mobility and firmness. The ligaments, like the cartilages, are in health destitute of sensibility, are soft and yielding in early life, and become more inflexible in age.

189. The muscles constitute a considerable part of the body. They seem to consist of a confused mass of flesh adhering to the bones ; but the inquirer finds every part of the muscular system arranged in the most regular manner. On divesting the body of its skin, masses are seen running in various directions, some broad and thin, some narrow and thicker, some more rounded ; some of uniform size, some large in the middle and taper towards the extremities, and some spread out like a fan, long and short, running parallel with the bones, and obliquely or transversely. These are muscles, and each is surrounded by its sheath of gauzelike cellular tissue, the interstices of which are repositories of fat. The muscle is composed of parallel bundles, each of which is surrounded by a sheath. If these be opened, parallel fibres appear, also enveloped in sheaths, and each of these fibres is composed of minute filaments.

190. There is discrepancy among anatomists in regard to the muscular filament. But these points are of little importance. If we can ascertain the vital powers of the muscle, and know how they are affected, we possess all the knowledge in regard to the structure of the filament that can be of practical utility.

191. I have said (159) that the vital properties of muscle are — 1st, susceptibility, or sensibility to stimulants ; 2nd, contractility, or the power to shorten under stimulation. These are generally regarded as a single property, and denominated muscular irritability : but they are different powers — the one to receive an impression, and the other to act under that impression.

192. The vital properties of the muscle are exhausted by action, and it is requisite that they should be replenished. This depends on the blood ; and it is necessary that the muscle be freely supplied. Accordingly, numerous arteries are distributed conveying to the muscular system blood to nourish its substance.

193. The nerves distributed to the muscles are of three kinds : 1. Those

that accompany the blood-vessels. These are concerned in producing those changes in the blood necessary to the welfare of the muscle. 2. Those that convey the stimulus of the will. These divide and subdivide till too small to be detected, and act to stimulate the muscle. 3. The nerves of sensibility that convey to the centre of perception impressions by which the mind is informed of the action of the muscles, &c. These are furnished in small numbers, and hence the muscles possess little sensibility. None of these nerves can be concerned in imparting to the muscle its vital properties. Those belong to the vitality of the muscle, and this can only be maintained by supplies of blood, requiring the integrity of all the nerves

MUSCLES AND TENDONS.

194. The muscles are divided into two classes — those of voluntary and involuntary motion. The former are also called the muscles of animal life, and the latter of organic life. The muscles of animal life invest the bones, are mostly on the outer parts of the body, and abound in the limbs. The muscles of voluntary motion belong to the vascular system, and the digestive and respiratory apparatus. Some of the muscles of voluntary motion attach to the bones, but most terminate their extremities in a fibrous arrangement of sellular tissue called tendon, and by these tendons are attached to the bones. Some suppose the tendons are formed by the continuation of the sheaths which surround the muscular fibres (170).

195. In their texture the tendons differ little from ligaments. They are composed of small fibres closely united, and are surrounded by a sheath, lined by a membrane which secretes for them a lubricating fluid. They possess little elasticity, have no sensibility, and few vessels. Like the cartilage and ligaments, they are soft in early life, and rigid in age.

196. The tendons, attached to the muscles at one end, adhere at the other to the periosteum, or membrane which surrounds and unites them to the bones ; thus they become the media through which the muscles act on the bones. Some are long, and extend to parts considerably removed from the muscles, as in the upper and lower extremities. This arrangement secures many mechanical advantages, and contributes to the symmetry of the body, by accumulating muscles into masses in some places and withdrawing them from others, thereby giving the outlines of the trunk, limbs, ankles, wrists, &c. The tendons are usually found at the extremities of muscles, but are sometimes inserted in the middle, dividing the muscle, as in the under jaw, the neck, diaphragm, &c. The end of the muscle attached to the most fixed point is its head or origin ; the fleshy mass is the body, and the end attached to the movable point is its termination. Some of the muscles are only attached at one extremity ; and some, being circular, have no direct attachment to the bones. Both kinds are in the face, surrounding the mouth, &c.

197. As the muscles have only the power to produce emotion by their contraction, they are arranged to act as antagonists to each other, some displacing a part and some replacing it: some bending a limb and some extending it: and, therefore, they are termed abductor and adductor — the flexor and extensor muscles. The flexor muscles are more powerful than the extensors, and hence, when the will ceases to act, the limbs are partially fixed or bent.

198. According to Meckel, “ There are in the normal or proper state of the body two hundred and thirty-eight different musclss, six of which are composed of two parts which unite on the median line, and two hundred and thirty-two are in pairs ; so that the whole number of the voluntary muscles are four hundred and seventy.” These are so arranged that by the contraction of the different pairs or muscles all motions are performed. The function of respiration, which is both voluntary and involuntary, employs some of these muscles.

199. The muscles of involuntary motion are much more simple than those of animal life; and, except in the heart, have no appearance of tendons. Their fibres are not parallel, but interlace, and are much shorter than those of the voluntary muscles. They are arranged in layers, and these are generally transverse or oblique, forming rings round the cavities which they circumscribe.

graham’s science op human lipe.

The circular fibres are nearest each other at the orifices of the cavities, and are stronger than the longitudinal fibres. The involuntary muscles do not act in opposition, but either in concert or so as to counteract each other, as their office is to diminish the cavities. Some of the muscles, however, act alternately, as in the heart and intestines. The involuntary muscles are even more abundantly supplied with vessels than those of animal life.

200. The muscles, like the cartilages, ligaments, tendons, &c., are at first very soft, and gradually become more consistent and rigid.

201 . Muscular substance once destroyed is never reproduced ; but when muscles are wounded the breach is healed and the parts united by a peculiar arrangement of cellular tissue, which is insensible to stimulants.

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202. The nervous system is the most interesting portion of the body. It is the immediate organism of vitality, and the intellectual manifestation ; hence the nervous system constitutes the man.

204. By the vital powers of the nerves the functions of all the organs are performed. The food is digested into chyme, chyle, blood, the solids and fluids, and the temperature of the body is regulated (173).