A text-book of agricultural zoology

Front matter

Med f e.

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THE PROPERTY OF

Preface To The Second Edition

Since this volume was published in 1899 considerable advance has been made in the subject of Economic Zoology. Consequently many alterations have had to be made in this second edition, and a considerable amount of new matter has had to be incorporated.

The general scope of the work for teaching purposes has not been altered, as it seems to have met with general approval both at home and in the Colonies.

FRED. Y. THEOBALD.

Wye Court, Wye, March 1913.

Preface To The First Edition

The subject treated in the following chapters, Agricultural Zoology, has perhaps been more neglected in England than any other branch of science applied to agriculture : even the name itself is hardly at present understood. It is true, indeed, that the labours of Curtis, and in later years of Miss Ormerod, have developed one branch of economic zoology — namely, the part played by insects in causing disease amongst animals and plants ; it is true also that some of our veterinary surgeons have done excellent work on the other parasitic diseases of animals ; but there remains a vast portion of the subject that lias neither gained the attention of English scientific men nor been summarised in an English text-book. Agricultural Zoology treats of the life-histories, the habits, the peculiarities of all the animals which affect for good or for evil our stock and crops, whether on the farm or in the garden, and the structure and development of domestic animals. Parasitism plays an important part in this subject, especially in the protozoa and worms ; but the economic effects of parasites are not confined to protozoa and worms— the parasitic insects and mites equally take their annual and preventable toll of our flocks and herds. Nor, again, is parasitism always an injurious phenomenon : its beneficial effects are equally marked and equally under control, given only the requisite knowledge. In

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Preface

either case, the necessary thing is an acquaintance with the complex structure and the life-history of both the higher animals we meet upon the farm, which may serve as host, and also of the smaller organisms met along with them, whether injurious or beneficial, parasitic or leading an independent existence. With an injurious insect, for example, there is some period when it is open to attack : our observation should enable us to discover this period, and our science to suggest an appropriate weapon. In the same way our domestic animals are weak at certain points and at certain times : only an intimate knowledge of their organisation and their habits will enable us to apply the corresponding safeguards.

In the following text-book the writer has endeavoured to summarise the habits, characters, and development of the animals that may be met with in farm and garden. Groups possessing little or no economic importance have been but briefly referred to, such as the Coelenterates, Sponges, and Echinoderms. On the other hand, the structure of one domestic animal, the horse, has been treated at some length.

It is hoped that the book may be of service to the farmer ; but it is primarily written for the rapidly increasing class of students in our Agricultural Colleges, &c. In their hands lies the future of scientific agriculture, in the development of which economic zoology must play not perhaps the least part.

My thanks must here be expressed to Sir George Brown, K.C.B., for kindly revising the chapter on the Anatomy of the Horse, and for other help generally ; to Dr Hans Gadow for the great trouble he has taken in examining the proofsheets of chapters xiv. and xv., and for his valuable advice in other matters. The chapters on Mites and Insects have been read over by Mr (now Sir) Charles Whitehead ; and to him 1 tender my grateful thanks, not only for his help in examining the proofs, but also for allowing me the use of some of his excellent figures from the publications of the Board of Agriculture. In connection with the latter, I must here

PREFACE.

IX acknowledge the courteous permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office to use the electros, several of which were supplied gratuitously. To Dr George Fleming, C.B., I am indebted most of ail : thanks to his generosity, many of the excellent electros of worms, mites, &c., from his translation of Neumann’s ‘Parasitic Diseases of Animals,’ have been lent me for this book, and others he has allowed me to reproduce ; hut it is especially for the trouble he has taken in revising the chapters on Worms, Embryology, and the parts concerning domestic animals, that I owe him so many thanks. His publishers, Messrs Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox, also readily gave their consent to the free use of his figures, and I cannot let this opportunity pass without expressing my thanks for their great courtesy in this matter. Professor Nicholson has very kindly contributed a number of figures from his well-known ‘ Manual of Zoology,’ which greatly add to the value of the work. I must also acknowledge Miss Ormerod’s kind-ness in allowing me the use of fig. 118, and for other advice always so readily given. I must also express my thanks to Sir William Flower, K.C.B., the Trustees of the British Museum, Professor Bitsema Bos, Professor A. D. Hall, and Professor Adam Sedgwick, for either allowing their figures or those of institutions they represent to he reproduced, or for lending the blocks. Mr H. Cousins has kindly revised the part of Appendix II. dealing with insecticides.

Not only in England hut also from abroad, especially from America, have I received much courteous and valuable aid, and to one and all I tender my many thanks.

FRED. V. THEOBALD.

Wye, December 1898.

Note. — The figures so kindly lent, and those purchased from other works, arc here gratefully acknowledged, with sufficient clearness, I trust, for every one’s satisfaction : —

From His Majesty’s Stationery Office, by permission of the Con-

X

PREFACE.

96, 97, 98, 99, 110, 112, 113, 144, 150, 158, 159 are original drawings by the author, the blocks being lent by the S.-E. Agricultural College, from the College Journal. From Messrs Churchill the following figures from Chauveau’s ‘ Comparative Anatomy of Domesticated Animals’ have been purchased— viz., figs. 181, 182, 183, 184, 188, 189, 191, 193, 194, 196, 208, 214, 236, 238, 239, 242, from the same work, with the publishers’ permission.

From Curtis’s ‘Farm Insects’ the following have been purchased, figs. 68, 69, 70, 81, 84, 95, 104, 105, 125, 128, 133, 142, 149, and 163. Fig. 186 is reproduced from one of Sir William Flower’s drawings in his ‘ Osteology of the Mammalia.’ The figures of Eelworms, figs. 21 and 29, are reproduced with the permission of Professor Ritsema Bos ; and fig. 118 is a reproduction from Miss Ormerod’s ‘ Manual of Injurious Insects.’ The Department of Agriculture, U.S.A., kindly allowed me to reproduce Dr Howard’s figures of the Pear Midge and San Jose Scale, figs. 121 and 155 (part). Figs. 170, 253, 255 are from the British Museum Guides. From Foster and Balfour’s ‘Embryology,’ figs. 229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237 are reproduced, with the permission of Professor Adam Sedgwick.

Fig. 61 is reproduced from several figures in Neumann’s ‘ Parasitic Diseases of Domestic Animals,’ and also part of fig. 3.

Figs. 151 and 168 are from ‘Insect Life’ (original), with the permission of Messrs Methuen & Co.

Figs. 82, 102, 103 from the writer’s ‘ Insect and other Allied Pests of Orchard, Bush, and Hothouse Fruits.’

To all who have helped me in this work, by lending their blocks, or allowing their figures to be reproduced, or by lending specimens,

1 offer my thanks.

F. V. T.

Part I

CHAP. PAGE

I. THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES. THE CLASSI- FICATION OF ANIMALS . . . . .3

II. PROTOZOA, OR SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS . . .16

III. SPONGES, CGELENTERATES, AND ECHINODERMS . . 32

IV. WORMS. PLATYHELM INTH ES OR FLAT- WORMS . . 36

v. worms — Continued. nemathelmintiles or roundvi. worms — Continued, chtetopoda and hirudinea . 90

VII. ARTHROPODA OR JOINTED -LIMBED ANIMALS. (CRUSTACEA,

MYRIAPOD A, AND ARACHNOIDEA) ’ . . .97

VIII. HEXAPODA. (COLEOPTERA, HYMENOPTERA, LEPIDOrTERA, DIPTERA, THYSANOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, ORTHOPTERA, NEUROPTERA, APTERA) . . . . .138

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Part II

X. CHORDATA. (TUNICATES OR SEA-SQUIRTS AND AMPHIoxus = acrania) ..... 307

xi. chordata — Continued, the chaRxVcters of craniote

OR YERTERRATE ANIMALS . . . .311

XII. THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE .... 315

XIII. CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRANIOTA. A. THE ICHTHYOP-

SIDA. (fish and amphibia) , . .351

XIV. B. SAUROPSIDA. (i. REPTILES) .... 360

xv. b. sauropsida — Continued, (n. ayes) . . . 365

XVI. BRITISH BIRDS ...... 377

XVII. EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK (THE EGG OF THE FOWL) . 431

XVIII. MAMMALIA (DEVELOPMENT AND FOETAL MEMBRANES) . 448

xix. mammalia — Continued, classification of mammals.

BRITISH MAMMALS (DOMESTIC AND WILD) . . 460

APPENDICES.

I. THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF VERMICEOUS

II. THE PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS . 510

FIG

10,

15,

16,

17, oo lUFj

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Blood Corpuscles of Vertebrata .....

A, A Trypanosome , and B, A Spirochcele ....

Coccidium oviforme of Rabbit’s Liver ....

Piroplasmte .......

Ciliate Protozoan ( Balantidum coli ) ....

The Common Starfish ( Uraster rubens) . . . .

Liver-fluke ( Distomum hepaticum) ....

Life-history of Distomum hepaticum ....

Diagram showing Life-history of Liver-fluke Scolex of Tcenia solium and Proglottis of Tapeworm Two forms of Cysts of Cestodes ( Cysticercus and Ccenurus) Sturdy in Sheep ( Ccenurus cercbralis and Tcenia ccenurus ) Fragment of Measly Pork . . . . .

Tcenia echinococcus ......

Diagram showing formation of Proligerous and Secondary Vesicles in Echinococcus .

Tcenia serrata ..... '

Tcenia serrata .......

Embryo and Ova of Sclerostomum rubrum Anguillulidte (Eelworms) .

The Lung Worm ( Strongylus filaria) .

XIV

ILLUSTRATIONS.

23. Armed Palisade-worm of Horse ( Sclerostomum armatum)

24. Vermiceous Aneurism of Great Mesenteric Artery

25. Sclerostomum tetracanthum .....

26. Small Red Sclerostome ( S . rubrum ) from Horse .

27. Gape Worm ( Syngcimus trcichealis ) . . . .

28. Trichinella spiralis ......

29. Eelworms ( Anguillulidce ) . ... .

30. Ear Cockles in Corn ( Tylenchus scctndens)

31. Wheat attacked by Tylenchus scandens . . . .

32. The Stem Eel worm ( Tylenchus dcvaslatrix. Kuhn)

33. The Beet Eelworm ( Ileterodera schachtii )

35. Oxyures of Horse ( Curvula ) . ... .

36. Oxyures of Horse ( Mastigodes ) . . . . .

37. The Horse-Leech ( Hcemopis sanguisugu) . . . .

38. Structure of an Arthropod ( Pcriplaneta amcricana )

39. Head and Lower Lip of Cockroach . . . .

40. Structure of Insect Leg ......

41. Digestive Organs of the Cockroach . . . .

42. Trachea and side-view of part of Abdomen

43. Nervous System .......

44. Wood-lice ( Armadillidium vulgaris, PorccUio scabcr , and antenna

of Oniscus, kc. )

45. Millepedes (Blanjulus p)idchcllus and hdus Londincnsis)

46. Millepedes (1, Blanjulus pidchellus ; 2, Polydesmus complanatus) ;

Centipede (3, Geophilus subterraneus )

47. House Spider ( Tcgenaria civilis) .....

48. Orb-weaving Spider, kc. ......

49. Harvest Bug ( Trombidium holosericeum) ....

50. Harvest Bug ( Leptus autumncdis) ....

51. Red Spider ( Tetranychus telarius) . . . .

52. Red Hen Mite ( Dcrmanyssus avium) and Egg

53. Head of a Tick .......

54. External parts of a Tick ......

55. Female Tick laying Eggs ......

56. Female Sheep-scab Mite ......

58. Demodectic Scabies (section of skin) ....

74 77

80 81 82 83 86

88 95

106 108

120 121 122

125 129

ILLUSTRATIONS.

XV

59. Beetle Mite ( Oribata orbicularis) .

•

60. Black Currant Mite ....

61. Linguatulidae .....

62. A Hexapod [Tipula oleracea)

63. Mouth parts of Insects ....

64. Larvae of Insects .....

65. Pupae of Insects .....

66. Pupa of Tipula oleracea ....

67. Alimentary Canal of Larva ( Tipula paluclosa)

68. Lady - birds [Coccinellidce )

69. The Turnip Flea Beetle ....

70. Mustard Beetle ( Phcedon betulce) .

71. The Asparagus Beetle ....

72. Apple blossom Weevil [A ntlionomus poruorum)

73. Apple Blossoms damaged by Apple Weevil

( Antlionomus pomorum ) .....

74. Pea Weevil ( Sitones lineatus)

75. Red-legged Weevil ( Otiorhynchus tenebricosus ) .

76. The Raspberry Weevil [Ot iorhynchus picipcs)

77. Bean Beetle ( Bruchus rufimanus )

78. Striped Click-beetle ( Agriotes lineatus) .

79. Rose Beetle ( Cetonia aurata)

80. Cockchafer ( Melolontha vulgaris)

81. Beet Carrion -beetle ( Silplia opaca)

82. Raspberry Beetle ( Byturus tomentosus) .

83. Ground-beetle ( Carabus violaceus)

84. Corn Ground-beetle ( Zabrus gibhus)

85. Pupa of a Sawfly .....

86. Honey-bees .....

87. Mouth and Sting of Bee, dissected

88. Cynipidac ......

89. Saw of a Female Sawfly ....

90. Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus ribesii)

-

91. Slug- worm of Pear ( Eriocampa limacina)

92. Pear Sawfly ( Eriocampa limacina), and Cocoon .

93. Leaf of Cherry eaten by Slug-worms

94. Larva of the Large White (Pieris brassica)

95. Green-veined White ( Pieris napi)

•

XVI

ILLUSTRATIONS.

96. Currant Clearwing ( JEgeria tipuliformis ) . . .196

97. Larva and Pupa of Currant Clearwing (AZgeria tipuliformis ) . 197

98. Black Cui’rant Stems damaged by Larvte of Currant Clearwing 197

99. Garden Swift-moth ( Hepialus lupulinus ) . . . 198

100. The Ghost Moth ( Hepialus humuli) . . . .199

101. Cordyceps entomorhiza (a fungus on Hepialus larvte) . . 200

102. Egg-band of Lackey Moth ..... 201

103. Female and Male Lackey Moths . . . .201

104. Heart-and-Dart Moth ( Agrotis exclamationis) . . . 204

105. Silvery Y-Moth (Plusia gamma) .... 205

107. Life-history of Currant or Magpie Moth ( Abraxas grossulariata) 208

108. Codling Moth (Carpocapsci pomonella) .... 210

109. Diamond-back Moth ( Plutella maculipennis ) . . . 212

110. Cherry-Hee Case-bearer ( Coleophora anatipenella) . . 214

111. Raspberry Shoot-borer ( Lampronia rubiella ) . . .215

112. The Pear-leaf Blister Moth . . . . .216

113. Pear Leaf blistered by Cemiostoma scitella . . .216

115. A Mosquito ( Theobaldia annulata ) and Head of Mosquito . 217

117. Larva and Pupa of a Cecidomyia .... 220

118. Anchor Processes . . . . .221

119. Wing of Cecidomyia ...... 221

120. Wing of Diplosis ...... 222

124. Crane-fly (Tipula olcracca) ..... 227

125. Winter Gnats ( Trichoecra ) ..... 229

126. Head and Proboscis of Tabanus autumnalis . . . 230

127. Ox Gad-fly ( Tabanus bovinus) ..... 230

128. Hover-flies ( Syrphidce ) ...... 233

129. Ox-warble ( Hypoderma bovis) ..... 234

131. Horse-bot Fly (Oastrophilus equi) .... 237

132. Larva of Horse-bot Fly ...... 237

133. Root-eating Flies ...... 238

ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii

134. Onion Fly (Phorbia cepetorum) ..... 239

135. The Cabbage-root Fly . . . , . .241

136. Card disc to prevent Egg-laying of Cabbage Fly . . 241

138. Mangold Fly ( Pegomyia betce) ..... 243

139. Ova of Mangold Fly and Adult- ..... 243

140. Gout Fly ( Chlorops tceniopus ) ..... 245

141. The Frit Fly (Oscinis frit) ..... 247

142. Carrot Fly (Psila rosce) ...... 249

143. Celery Fly ( Acidia heraclei) ..... 250

144. House Fly ( Musca clomestica) ..... 252

145. Head of Stomoxys . . . . . . 253

146. Sheep-tick ( Mclophagus ovinus ) ..... 255

147. Larva and Pupa of Hen-flea ( Pulex avium) . . .257

148. The Hen Flea ( Trichopsylla gallince) .... 258

150. Hop damaged by a Hemiptera-heteroptera . . .261

151. Cherry Aphis ( Myzus cerasi ) ..... 263

153. Plum Aphis {Aphis pruni) ..... 268

154. Female San Jose Scale . . . . . .269

155. Male San Jose and Mussel Scale .... 270

156. The Brown Currant Scale {Lecanium persicai v. ribis) . . 272

157. Apple-sucker ( Psylla mali) ..... 273

158. A Snow Fly {Aleyrodes) . ..... 275

159. Needle-nosed Hop-bug (Calocoris fulvomaculatus) . . 277

160. Louse of the Ox ( Hcematopinus eurysternus) . . . 279

161. Migratory Locust (JJdipoda migrator ia) . . . 280

162. Female and Male common Cockroach [Blatta orientalis) . 282

163. Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) .... 283

164. Trichodectes sphcerocephalus of Sheep .... 285

165. Mallophaga or Bird-lice ...... 285

167. Dragon-flies {^Eschna grandis) ..... 288

168. Silver Fish ( Lepisma saccharina ) .... 289

169. Edible Snail {Helix pomatia) ..... 292

170. Two Transverse Series of Teeth from Radula of Limpet . 294

171. Shells of Lamellibranchs ..... 294

ILLUSTRATIONS.

172. Common Calamary ( Loligo vulgaris) .... 295

173. Water-snails (Limnceidce) ..... 298

174. Grey Field-slug [Agriolimax agrestis) .... 300

175. Testacella ( T . haliotidea ) . . . . .301

176. Garden Snail ( Helix aspersa) ..... 302

177. Structure of a Tunicate ...... 308

178. Development of a Tunicate ..... 309

179. The Lancelet ( Amphioxus lanccolatus ) .... 309

180. Diagrammatic Sections of an Invertebrate and Vertebrate . 311

181. Skeleton of Horse . . . . . .316

182. Lumbar Vertebra . . . . . .317

185. Skull of the Horse . . . . . .319

186. Diagram of the Relations of the Pi’iucipal Bones of the Mam-

malian Skull ...... 320

187. Fore and Hind Leg of Horse ..... 322

189. General View of the Intestines of the Horse . . . 32S

190. Diagram of Alimentary Canal . ... . . 329

191. Theoretical, Longitudinal, and Median Section of Abdominal

Cavity, to show Peritoneum .... 333

192. Median Longitudinal Section of Head and Upper Part of Neck

193. Uro-Genital Apparatus of Male, with Arteries . . . 338

194. Generative Organs of the Mare ..... 340

195. Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood . . . 342

196. Brain of Horse (dorsal view) ..... 346

197. Brain of Horse (ventral view) ..... 347

198. The Perch (Perea Jluviatilis) ..... 352

199. Diagram of the Circulation in Fishes .... 353

200. Development of the Frog ..... 356

201. Male Crested Newt (Triton cristatus ) .... 358

202. Diagram of the Circulation in Reptiles . . . .361

203. Pleurodont and Acrodont Dentition .... 362

204. Head of Reptiles ...... 362

205. Blind-worm (Anguis fragilis) ..... 364

ILLUSTRATIONS. xix

208. Skeleton of Fowl ...... 368

210. Pectoral Arch of Fowl ...... 370

211. Sternum of Fowl ...... 371

212. Pelvis of Fowl (lateral view) ..... 872

213. Alimentary Canal of Fowl ..... 373

215. Split-Swimming Foot of Grebe {Podiceps fluviatilis) . . 378

216. Foot of Raptorial Bird ...... 381

217. Head of White-tailed Eagle ( Haliaetus albicilla) . .384

219. Head of Grey Lag Goose and Foot of Domestic Goose . . 387

221. Foot of Gallinaceous Bird . . . . .392

225. Scansorial Foot, as seen in Woodpeckers and Parrots . .412

226. Foot of Passerine Bird (Wagtail) .... 413

229. Ovum and Structure of a Fowl’s Egg .... 432

230. Section through part of Blastoderm (first day of incubation) . 435

231. Transverse Section of Blastoderm, incubated for eighteen hours 437

232. Transverse Section through Posterior Part of the Head of an

Embryo Chick of Thirty Hours .... 440

233. Head of Embryo Chick of the Fourth Day . . . 443

234. Ovum of Rabbit ..... 451

235. Diagram of Foetal Membranes of a Mammal . . . 453

236. Vertical Section of Injected Placenta of a Mare . % 454

237. Diagrammatic Section of Pregnant Human Uterus with con-

tained Foetus . . . . t .456

238. Foetus of Sheep ...... 457

239. Diagram of Parts of Foetal Horse .... 458

240. Feet of Ungulata ...... 463

241. Skeleton of Foot in various forms of Equidae . . . 466

242. Section of Horse’s Incisor Tooth .... 467

XX

ILLUSTRATIONS.

243. Transverse Section of Horse’s Upper Molar

244. Teeth of Pig •

245. Skeleton of Pig .

246. Stomach of Ruminant .

247. Skull of Ram .

248. Skeleton of Sheep

249. Median Section of Ox’s Head .

250. Skeleton of Cow

251. Feet of Carnivora

252. Teeth of Dog, and Jaws

253. Bones of Toe of Cat

254. Head of Rodent .

255. Skull and Shoulder Girdle of Mole

256. Skull of Hedgehog ( Erinaccus europceus)

257. Long-eared Bat ( Plccotus auritus)

472 474

481 484 488

491 498

PART I.

ACHORDATA (INVERTEBRATA)