A text-book of physical exercises : adapted for the use of elementary schools

Front matter

Text-Book of

Carter and Bott m a y i

22101419817

Preface

The Elementary Education Act of 1870 was in itself such a revolution in our ideas of the national duty towards our children, and necessitated so many changes in so many places, that little surprise can be expressed if most of the time since that period has been spent in the organisation of the administration, rather than upon the matter to he taught in the schools.

At the present moment our elementary schools, while conspicuous among all our schools for the excellence of their methods, have yet much to learn, and much to alter, in what is being taught.

One omission from the curriculum of most of the elementary schools until the last few years has been that of systematic physical exercise ; and this, in spite of the fact that in all schools of a higher grade this subject has assumed such importance that in some cases it seems in danger of overshadowing all the others.

The Education Department, by its code of 1895, has now made the teaching of Physical Exercise in the senior part of an Elementary School one of the conditions of earning the principal

VI grant; and it may be interesting to school managers to know that under the Birmingham Board such teaching has been carried out in all its schools for the last ten years.

One hour and twenty minutes a week is the time assigned for this exercise (comprising four lessons of ten minutes each, and one of forty minutes), which is carried on in the playground if the weather permits, otherwise in the central hall, or in the classrooms with all the windows wide open.

In spite of the requirements of the Education Code, and of a wide curriculum, this diversion has not, in the opinion of the bulk of the teachers, interfered with the progress of the scholars. On the contrary, it has not only brightened them up and improved their physique, but it has also instilled into them habits of prompt and ready obedience to the word of command so useful alike during school life and afterwards.

It seems very desirable that those interested in the question should have some text -book to which they can refer for guidance and information ; and it is extremely important that such a book should be produced under the direction of those who are acquainted in the first place with the true physiological basis of exercise ; and in the second place with a knowledge of the practical conditions under which a reasonable scheme can be conducted. From the medical point of view Dr. Carter has long given this subject his careful attention, and has had opportunities of studying these questions in Birmingham which are perhaps unique. On the other hand, in Mr. Bott we have the organiser of the whole of the exercises now given in the Birmingham Board Schools, and one who, by his painstaking

PREFACE vii

efforts and ready sympathy, has won golden opinions from the teachers with whom he is in close contact.

I need only add an expression of my firm conviction that some form of systematic physical training will very shortly occupy a reasonable time in the curriculum of every school in the kingdom, and that both teachers and managers will agree that it is as necessary, as it is desirable, for the well-being of the children.

GEORGE H. KENRICK,

Chairman, School Management Committee, Birmingham School Board.

Part I Page

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE 3

2. Drill at Assembly . . ... . . . .45

3. Marching and Wheeling 51

4. Running, or the Double March 57

5. Desk Drill for Indoor Exercises . . . . .59

6. Arranging a Class for Exercise in the Schoolyard . 61

7. Free Exercises 66

{A.) Arm Exercises .68

(B.) Body Movements . . . . . . . .76

(0.) Combination Exercises ...... 84 t

X

1 0. Indian Clubs

11. Figure - Marching ,

12. A Figure - Marching Exercise for a Class of Thirty-two.

13. Table of Exercises for Four Short Lessons in School .

14. Table of a Year’s Drill and Exercises for each

Standard in the Playground

I'A<JK

PART I

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE

Strictly speaking, physical education has to do with all conditions on which the material welfare and physical well-being of the body depend, such as exercise, rest, recreation, food, clothing, personal cleanliness, and the like. The present work, however, touches only upon one side of physical education, namely, the employment of muscular exercises, carefully selected and organised, with the general object of increasing the efficiency and power of an individual to fulfil the duties of life, and more especially considered in relation to the requirements of children in public elementary schools.

With these objects in view, it is clear that everything depends upon the care and skill with which such exercises are selected and graded to meet the varied requirements of sex, age, development, and bodily health of pupils, the limitations imposed by school work of other kinds, and many other practical considerations. Though we have yet much to learn with regard to the exact relation of muscular work to all these conditions, experience has done a great deal to show us. what is necessary and desirable ; and as the whole subject is now very properly receiving much more attention than has formerly been given to it, valuable additions to our present stores of knowledge may be reasonably expected in the near future.

One point deserves to be prominently kept in mind from the outset, namely, that the prime object of giving physical exercises a place in the ordinary routine of school work is not to cultivate

Scope of physical education.

Importance of collateral conditions.

Aims at good

general

development.

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Close relation of physical with other kinds of education.

Classification of physical exercises.

Special features of educational exercises.

special excellence or skill in any single athletic exercise, hut to promote healthy physical development of the whole body symmetrically, harmoniously, and in good proportion, and to encourage a high level of all-round physical efficiency. Starting on this basis, it is wise to leave special exercises of skill, activity, and strength to be acquired at a later period in life, when they can be carried out with much greater safety and general advantage than in early youth.

The same principles of symmetry, harmony, and good proportion apply with equal force to the different kinds of education, in their relation to each other. Mental, moral, and physical education have often been regarded as if they had little or nothing in common with each other ; but it is at last — though somewhat tardily — recognised that such an attitude is quite untenable. No one of them can be separated from the other two, without some distinct and definite loss of strength, efficiency, and beauty in the final result. Physical exercise has too long been left to chance, and the spontaneous desire of the young for active muscular exercise ; and experience shows that this haphazard method is hopelessly unequal to the exigencies of modern life, especially among the children in the elementary schools of our large towns.

The purposes for which physical exercises are employed may be roughly classed under three heads, namely, hygienic, recreative, and educational. Hygienic exercises are those which are selected for their special influence upon the health of the body, and more particularly as a means of treating disorders and deformities of various kinds. Recreative exercises, like outdoor games, for instance, have for their chief object the amusement, interest, and pleasant occupation of those who take part in them. Educational exercises, on the other hand, are designed to take a definite place in the general plan of unfolding and developing the faculties of the young, in association with mental and moral training. Their characteristic features are (1) that they are specially organised and graded to correspond with the ordinary course of

I natural development; and (2) that they are conducted throughout under the direct control and command of outside authority, in the person of the teacher. Of course it will he understood that such a classification of physical exercise is more or less arbitrary. For instance, recreative exercises owe a large part of their value to the fact that, when conducted under proper conditions, they are healthful and invigorating. Again, educational exercises are, or at least ought to be, in some degree recreative ; for if they fail in arousing the interest of or in giving pleasure to the pupils, they lose a great deal of their influence for good. It is sometimes said that drilling, marching, and general “setting-up” exercises without fixed apparatus are dull and uninteresting to children. Our experience in the schools of this city, extending now over several years, is entirely opposed to this view, and a strong opinion prevails that where contrary results are met with, the fault lies with the mode of teaching, and not with the exercises.

The claim of physical exercise to occupy an important place Claims of in any complete scheme of education rests mainly on two place

facts: — (1) its influence as an aid to school discipline; and (2) in general its influence as a means of making the scholars better fitted ulucat10"- physically to contend with the work which they have to do.

Every practical educationalist will agree that a fundamental Exercise as an requisite in the training of children lies in the establishment of and diLipHnT order, and the cultivation of a habit of unfaltering obedience.

Not so very long ago, these were secured — in so far as it is possible to secure them — by the rough and ready rule of the rod. Without denying that there is still a sphere of activity for the judicious use of this mode of punishment, experience shows that in the matter of order and obedience quite as good results can be secured by regular, well-organised mass-exercises. In combined exercises, such as marching, wheeling, and classes with dumb-bells, staves, or clubs, each child in the squad is on terms of practical equality with all the rest; there is no opportunity afforded to any one of obtaining distinction at the expense of the

I'AKT

Exercise aid to vigorous health.

others ; the success of the movements depends throughout upon complete subordination of every child to the order and harmony of the whole class ; and this last can only be obtained by the strictest attention to the instructions and orders which issue from the teacher. The children like their work, they soon learn to appreciate what is required in order to command a successful performance, and thus come to take an eager and intelligent interest in the means employed to secure it. In this way, children can be brought to recognise from their earliest years that there is a right way and a wrong way of doing even the very simplest things ; they imperceptibly acquire the meaning of those invaluable qualities “ form ” and “ style ” ; and unconsciously develop the habit of doing what they are told to do, and doing it promptly — a habit which becomes strengthened by use. Lastly, there is this twofold contrast with the older method of ruling with the rod, namely (1) that the habit of order and obedience to outside authority grows and develops from within, instead of being imposed from without ; and (2) that its acquisition tends to bring the teacher and the taught into closer and more friendly relationship, instead of risking their mutual alienation.

The way in which physical exercise strengthens the scholar for the work which he has to do will be set forth in later sections of this introductory chapter ; but at any rate it is abundantly clear that in these modern days of unrestricted competition (the stern realities of which, alas, the rising generation are made to feel at far too tender an age) not only do the prizes of life tend more and more to fall to the strong rather than to the clever, but the task even of simply holding one’s own is one which year by year inflicts a greater strain upon the physical powers.

With this preamble we propose to briefly consider some oi the more important physiological facts and principles with which a teacher ought to be acquainted before he can be safely entrusted with the physical training of children, after which we shall endeavour to indicate some of the practical questions raised in the attempt to carry these principles into actual practice.

I

Nutrition is the sum of those processes by which the living Nutrition and materials of the body are renewed by the appropriation and con- growthversion of nutriment, in the shape of food and fresh air. During childhood and adolescence the processes of nutrition are more active than those of wasting and disintegration, which result from the ordinary wear and tear of life. Consequently the substance of the body increases, partly by an increase in the size of the elementary particles of which it is composed, but to a much greater and more important extent, by the formation of new tissue, which results from an actual multiplication of its constituent particles. This increase in body substance, which is so characteristic a feature of early life, is summed up in the word “ growth.” In middle life nutrition does little more as a rule than balance the results of wear and tear ; while in old age nutrition becomes very slow and languid, and progressively yields to advancing disintegration and decay.

The elementary facts with reference to the growth of the body in early life are full of interest and importance to those practically engaged in teaching the young, and therefore demand some notice here. Growth can be measured by the rate at which the body inci’eases in height and weight. Any failure of nutrition is invariably attended with some depreciation in the rate of growth. Diminished increase, or actual loss of weight, affoi’ds the earliest indication of failing nutrition ; and periodical measurements of the weight of growing children may often thus reveal the existence of disturbed health long before other outward signs are such as to attract attention. If the defect in nutrition is slight and temporary, growth in height may not at first be obviously interfered with ; but if at all severe and protracted, growth in height may be entirely checked for the time, while the body weight progressively falls.

Experience seems to teach us that in a growing child the demands of growth have a natural first claim upon the available energies of the body, and, until these demands are approximately satisfied, the bodily energy cannot lie drawn upon for the per-

Rate of growth height i weight.

8 PHYSICAL EXERCISES part

formance of work without serious risk of disturbance of health, and interference with the progress of development ; and this particularly applies to work which taxes the higher nervous centres. It follows, therefore, that all work required from a rapidly growing child — especially when not thoroughly well nourished — should be both moderate in amount and relatively easy of accomplishment. This primary rule must never he lost sight of by teachers in selecting physical exercises for young children in Schools.

The following tables show with tolerable accuracy the average rate of growth in height and weight for hoys and girls from the age of 5 years to maturity. The table for boys is constructed from the observations of Mr. Boberts in this country ; and that for girls, from the observations of Dr. Bowditch upon Boston (U.S.A.) schoolgirls, irrespective of nationality : —

Table showing Bate of Growth in Boys

Age last Birthday.

Height.

Inches.

Yearly

Increase.

Weight.

Pounds.

V

Yearly

Increase.

2-03

37-71

2-96

43-18

1-97

40-67

45-15

1-77

3-15

46-92

2-60

47-15

4-14

49-52

51-20

4-21

51-52

1-35

55-50

4-65

52-87

1-58

60-15

4-37

54-45

2-11

64-52

5-48

56-56

8-57

58-55

2-21

79-57

11-86

60-77

2-65

91-43

16-43

63-42

1-53

1 07"86

10-22

64-95

1-74

118-08

9-17

65-69

•68

147-25

4-23

66-37

•43

131-48

3*80

66-80

135-28

I

Table showing Rate of Growth in Girls

Age last Birthday.

Height.

Inches.

Yearly

Increase.

41-29

2-06

43 35

2-17

45"52

2-06

47-58

1-79

49 37

1 '97

51-34

2-08

53-42

2-46

55-88

2-28

58-16

1-78

59-94

1-16

61-10

•49

•33

61-59

61-92

•03

61-95

Weight.

Pounds.

39-66

43-28

47-46

52-04

57-07

62-35

68-84

78-31

88-65

98-43

106-08

112-03

115-53

115-56

Yearly

Increase.

3- 62

4- 18

4- 58

5- 03

5- 28

6- 39 9-47

10-34

9-78

7- 65 5-95 3-50

•03

From the above tables it will be seen that there is a progressive increase in growth in height and weight during the whole of early life, both for boys and girls. In boys (roughly speaking) the annual rate of growth somewhat irregularly slows down at first, reaching a minimum during the eleventh year, at which time growth is remarkably slow. From this point, the rate rapidly increases, and reaches a maximum during the sixteenth year, from which age it again quickly subsides until growth ceases with the arrival of maturity, at 21 years of age or later.

In girls the same general variations are observed, but at an earlier age than in boys. Thus, the first period of slow growth reaches its minimum during the ninth year ; the maximum rate, during the thirteenth year ; and there is little or no increase as

Growth of boys.

Growth of girls.

IO

PART

Importance of regular observations on growth, in schools.

Puberty.

a rule after the eighteenth year. It should be understood that the tables only indicate average heights and weights, and many instances will be met with which exceed or fall below the figures given. Nevertheless, all will exhibit relative variations similar to those which have just been described, marked deviation from which is suggestive of “ something wrong.”

It is much to be desired that all schools should be furnished with the necessary apparatus for measuring height and weight, and that regular records should be kept of the growth of school children, observed at intervals — say of three months. Were such records available, they would not only afford teachers useful suggestions in the management of their pupils, but would also yield materials of the greatest possible value for scientific purposes, likely some day to be of much practical sendee. As Sir Crichton Browne very justly says, “ the knowledge of the rate of growth is often essential to the safe conduct of education.”

By far the most important epoch in the course of a child’s development is that stage by which it passes into adolescence — the epoch of “ puberty.” In infancy and childhood the energies of the body are exclusively concerned with the building up of parts and the development of functions which" are necessary to the existence of the individual. Puberty, on the other hand, is characterised by active functional and structural changes which are designed to fit the individual for the perpetuation of its species. Puberty occurs in boys, in this country, from 14 to 16 years of age, while in girls it occurs somewhat earlier, namely, from 13 to 15 years of age. In both boys and girls it is a period of far-reaching and profound changes in the bodily organisation, which make a severe and peremptory demand upon the bodily energies ; and as a necessary result, the nervous system is in a highly unsettled state, easily disturbed by slight causes, and especially liable to exhaustion and depression. It behoves all teachers therefore to be particularly careful to avoid overtaxing the nervous energies of their pupils at this time by fatiguing work, for neglect of such precaution is a i PHYSICAL EXERCISES n

fruitful cause of disease and nervous break-down, as the experience of every medical practitioner can abundantly testify.

In order to intelligently appreciate the value of muscular exercise as a feature in education, and to rightly understand the principles of its employment, it will be necessary to inquire briefly what light physiology can throw upon the nature and effects of muscular action. Muscular substance is made up of bundles of soft fibres — about an inch in length, — forming masses of variable size and shape, each of which is called a muscle. The middle part or “ belly ” of a muscle is free and unattached, while the two ends are fixed to bones by means of cords or bands of fibrous tissues called “ tendons ” — one end to one bone, and the other end to another bone, the intervening muscle and its tendon always passing over at least one joint. A movement of a limb is produced by one or more muscles drawing their ends closer together, so that the bones to which the muscle is fixed are moved upon the intervening joint. In thus drawing its ends together, or contracting, a muscle becomes at the same time proportionately thicker and larger in the middle, and therefore its actual bulk remains the same whether contracted or relaxed.

The power to contract or shorten is the characteristic feature of muscular tissue ; and the question now arises, How is contraction caused ? Every individual fibre of which a muscle is composed is directly connected with a minute soft nervous filament. These nervous filaments are gathered up into larger threads, and these again into larger and larger nervous cords (nerves) which can be traced into the spinal cord or brain where they are connected with groups of nerve-cells (nerve-centres). By the action of nervous centres, nervous impulses are sent along the nerves to the muscles in connection with them, which on their arrival determine muscular contraction. In this way every muscle is provided and connected with a nerve-centre, by the activity of which its contraction is excited. These elementary

Structure and functions of muscular tissue.

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Muscle cannot be studied apart from nerve.

motor nerve-centres are variously grouped together, and are brought iiito connection by means of nerve-fibres with higher centres in the brain, the activity of which determines and controls the performance of movements requiring the co-operation of several muscles at the same time. Lastly (so far as voluntary movements are concerned), these centres for different movements are under the supreme control of that part of the brain which is the source of volitional action, and possesses the power of singling out, so to speak, and combining the particular movements desired, and of setting them in action ; while the latter, in their turn, call into play the elementary motor centres concerned, and finally determine the necessary muscular contraction. Thus it will be seen that, roughly speaking, there are three grades of nervous centres concerned in the performance of every definite voluntary muscular movement — (1) the centres directly instigating individual muscular contractions; (2) the centres which determine the combination of various muscular contractions for the performance of some definite movement or movements ; and (3) the volitional nervous centres, which have the power of selecting and combining the various movements required for the •purpose in view.

But this is not all. Not only is there a direct nervous path along which messages for movement pass from the brain above to the muscles below, but there is a direct nervous path for the passage of messages of sensation from the muscles below to the brain above, which bring to the latter exact information of the condition, behaviour, and response of muscles.

The reason for this brief technical description is to bring out the important facts that the muscles are in reality motor appendages to the nervous system, endowed with properties which are capable of converting a nervous impulse into mechanical work ; and that all physical exercise not only involves the action ol muscles, but the action ot a whole series of important nervous centres as well. The apparatus of movement then is made up of a nervous part and a muscular part.

I

The laws which govern the action of the nervous part of the apparatus of movement are essentially the same as those which govern the action of the muscular part ; both are abundantly supplied with blood which brings to each alike the material needed for its nourishment, and carries away the waste products of its wear and tear ; both build up their own substance in accordance with the same principles ; and both suffer alike from want of proper nourishment, overwork, and so on. So intimate is the connection between the two, and so closely are their interests interwoven, that whatever ministers to the well-being of the one, extends its favourable influence to the other. Healthy nervous development and action are in fact necessary to the acquirement of muscular power ; and healthy muscular development and action are no less necessary to the acquirement of nervous capacity and power.

If we compare the muscular endowments of an adult with Physiological those of a little child we cannot fail to be struck with the dpVelol)I1'e"t enormous difference not only in power and variety, but with endowments, their much greater refinement or specialisation (as it is called), and the much greater extent to which all movements are under the control of the will. It is obvious, however, that this state of things does not come about all at once ; it is a work of time.

With that active growth of the nervous system in general and of the brain in particular which characterise early life, fresh powers come into existence, in a definite order, each at its appointed time, and with a rate of development which is special to each.

Thus, the nervo-muscular apparatus concerned in the maintenance of the erect posture, and in walking, comes into existence much earlier, and develops more rapidly than that which concerns the movements of the upper limbs. Again, the movements of the body of a limb are acquired much earlier and more easily than those of its extremity — the foot or hand. Indeed, the more refined and highly specialised movements of the hand and fingers not only appear late, but require years of careful training to attain full proficiency.

M

PART

Practical application of preceding principles.

Local effects of exercise.

1. On blood-supply.

2. On size and strength of muscles.

In selecting physical exercises for the young we must always keep these facts in view. Any attempt to foster and develop the movements of one part before those which naturally precede it in point of time, is certain to be followed by perversion and disturbance of a child’s nervous development. Thus leg and trunk movements should receive attention before those of the arm ; those of the limbs as a whole before those of its individual parts. The nature of the superstructure will depend largely on the manner in which the foundations are laid, and it is reasonable to expect much greater facility in the acquirement of specialised movements when the simpler and more elementary movements upon which they are based have previously received an adequate training. A further reason for following the natural order of development in physical training lies in the fact that the time when fresh powers are just budding is that which experience shows to be most favourable for their full development under appropriate training. If the opportunity then occurring is allowed to slip by without due training, the powers in question either are not fully attained afterwards, or at any rate are attained with a much greater expenditure of time and trouble. The cultivation of faculties at other than the time appointed by Nature is, I may say, not by any means an unfrequent cause of nervous ailments, such as headaches, nervous twitchings and restlessness, chorea, or even mental derangement.

Turning now to certain details, it may be pointed out that the first effect of exercise is to increase the blood-supply of the parts concerned, as a result of which their nutrition becomes more active, and their growth and development are promoted. For such reasons the muscles increase in size and strength, the nervous centres in connection with them acquire greater power, and the tendons and the joint-structures attain greater suppleness and strength. There is an obvious limit to the extent to which the size of muscles can be increased by exercise, and when the

I latter is too severe or protracted, the muscles may waste. Muscular action, in common with all other forms of functional activity, is also attended with the formation of heat, and the fact of the body becoming heated by exercise is of course an experience familiar to all. A certain degree of heat is necessary for the maintenance of bodily activity, and exercise has an important share in keeping up the bodily temperature to the proper point. Those who take too little exercise are therefore apt to suffer from cold hands and feet, are liable to chilblains, and become languid and depressed.

Eepeated exercise also enables the muscles and the nervous structures connected with them to acquire greater power of combination, for the performance of complex movements. It is a matter of common knowledge that on attempting any complicated exercise there is a large expenditure of unnecessary exertion and effort, which quickly leads to fatigue. By practice, however, we come to learn not only what muscles to use, but how to use them with the greatest advantage and economy, in order to produce the desired result. The varied muscular actions necessary for the movement become at last so firmly associated together, and so completely controlled by the brain-centres which preside over the movement as a whole, that when once started, it proceeds through all its stages with so much facility and with so slight an intervention of the will, that it becomes for all practical purposes automatic. Economy in the exercise of power is one of the most important objects of education, and its attainment primarily depends upon the establishment of well-constructed and well -distributed nervo- muscular combinations, under the influence of habitual exercise.