A treatise on the origin, nature, and varieties of wine : being a complete manual of viticulture and œnology

Front matter

Med

1 <oo6sr

A TREATISE

Preface

IN presenting this treatise to the public, the Authors have hardly any statement to make which is not contained or implied in the work itself. Nevertheless, as the title may fail in conveying fully the scope and intensity of their labours, they beg leave to supplement it by a short preliminary statement of the principles by which they have been guided. In the first place, the Authors determined to produce a strictly scientific work, based as far as possible upon their personal observations. Such have therefore been made in the vineyards, cellars, and repositories of many countries, in the respective chemical laboratories of the Authors, in public and private gardens, in open nature, and in mines underground. Wherever possible, they availed themselves of the writings of previous authors for the purpose of guiding or supplementing their observations, and with that object they have consulted and used nearly two hundred out of the six hundred works which compose the world’s oenological literature.

The Authors next endeavoured to give due proportions to each of the elements of their treatise, so as to make it useful to the greatest possible number of readers. The planters of Australia or America will therefore find in it a concise

PREFACE.

viii

exposition of the principles of viticulture and vinification, by the aid of which they may attain the best products of which their climate may admit; but they will also have before them faithful pictures of the viticulture of the principal wine districts of the world, which they may use as patterns for imitation, if disinclined to rely upon general principles. The wine merchants of Great Britain and of America will find accurate descriptions of the objects of their trade, together with such topographical and statistical information as may aid them materially in enlarging the field, or the certainty, or the profits of their operations ; and rendering still more important services to the public for which they have hitherto provided, or hope in future to provide. All persons who are fond of wine as an article of diet and a means of enjoyment, will be able to find in this treatise information about the orig-in and varieties of wine, which will enable them to regulate their wants with due reference to their liking and their means. They will find that the Authors have had amongst their aims the accomplishment of one of the most benevolent intentions of the Legislature ; namely, to make accessible to the people at large, the wines of all countries which can be used as beverages, and which by the voice of science and the practice of entire nations are declared preferable by far to distilled spirit or to wines fortified by such. While thus assuming a distinct position with regard to a well-understocTd social question, the Authors have abstained from a zealous exaggeration, and have, on the contrary, endeavoured to preserve that judicial calmness which distinguishes the natural historian. The same moderation they have applied to practices such as the plastering of must and wine, for which, after the most searching investigation, they have been unable to

PREFACE.

IX find any logical grounds ; nay, for which those who are most addicted to them cannot adduce a single reason or pretext. An improved vinification by the guidance of science will of itself cause such practices to fall into desuetude, even if their results were not prejudicial to the quality of the products or the health of the consumers.

The Authors have endeavoured to impress strongly upon the minds of their readers that there is an indissoluble connection between the grape and the wine which it yields. The genius of wine is in the grape ; every kind of vine gives a distinct character to its product. For this reason the most renowned wines are all made from distinct varieties of grapes, which are never mixed with indifferent or heterogeneous varieties. The greater the number of varieties of grapes which participate in the production of a certain wine, the less character possesses the product. All wines should, therefore, be described in such a manner that the grapes from which they are made constitute the first term of the description. Wine from Palomino grown at Xeres differs greatly

from wine made from the Mantico Castellano grown in the same

f

district. How, then, can such wines be adequately described by the expression “ Sherry ” ? Wine from Carbenet Sauvignon differs greatly from the wine produced by the'Verdot and Malbec. Is it not unreasonable to confound these products under the term “ Claret ” ? The wines of Riessling and of Traminer are distinct products of the Rhine country. Is it not time to abandon or amend the designation of “ Hock,” so as to maintain the emphatic originality of each variety ? The adoption of this principle will go far to put an end to adulteration and imitation. The more the product of a distinct variety of vine becomes obscured by mixing, sweetening, or

X

PREFA CE.

brandy, the easier it can be imitated. But the thoroughly fermented, unsugared, and unbrandied wines of f alomino, Semilion, Riessling, Formint, of the Pineau, Bastardo, Verdot, Carmenet, Grenache and dinto, cannot be imitated by the most expert wine-cooks. Take away their brandy, their sugar, caramel, elder, and logwood, and their imposture is at an end.

It is thus not difficult to see in what direction the taste of the educated or informed part of the people will in the future be developed. The days of the heavily-brandied wines are numbered, since it is proved that the wines of Xeres and Oporto can be brought into a merchantable condition without extraneous spirit. As the habits of the people get softened, so they decrease both the quantity and strength of the alcoholic liquids which they consume, and insist upon increasing quality and differentiation of their beverages.

Persons interested in the maintenance of abuses have frequently attempted to uphold them by statements which they themselves did not always believe to be true. The greatest difficulty in the way of our inquiries has been the frequent misrepresentations on the part of producers and merchants regarding the natural alcoholicity of the wines of South Europe. We have dispelled this fog by relying, not upon men or their wines, but upon the scrutiny of musts by the gravimeter. We are sorry to find, that there is some tendency on the part of Australian producers to mystify the public regarding the natural strength of their wines, but rejoice that there are others who by the publication of the observations concerning the strength of their musts enable us to maintain for Australia also the validity of our general scientific conclusions.

PREFACE.

xi

In the course of our studies we have met with much support on the part of British and foreign merchants and producers interested in the subject. Our warmest thanks are due to the Messrs. W. and A. Gilbey, who have greatly assisted us throughout our labours, and given us such opportunities as we should not otherwise have enjoyed. We also fulfil a pleasant obligation by expressing our thanks to Monsieur Auguste Meller of Bordeaux, Monsieur Emile Perrier of Chalon sur Marne, and Herrn Rudolph Henckell of Mayence, for the great assistance given to us in our studies of the viticulture of the Gironde, the Champagne, and the Rhine.

Many are the friends, acquaintances, and strangers in almost all parts of the world, who supplied us with practical or literary notes, or hints and materials. To all of them we express our best thanks at this agreeable moment of the conclusion of our long and arduous, but faithful and pleasant labours.

We have also to acknowledge the care and attention bestowed on the woodcuts by Mr. J. D. Cooper and Mr. Collmgs.

October 1871.

Chapter I. Origin And Physiology Of Vines

Indigenous vines of European countries, I ; probable derivation of cultivated vines from , .indigenous varieties, II ; fossil vine and grapes, 14; the geographical distribution of vine on the northern hemisphere, 17 ; mineral constituents of the vine, 19; influence of the soil on the mineral constituents of the vine, 26 ; amount of mineral matter which viticulture abstracts from the soil, 29 ; organic ingredients and chemical development of the vine, 30 ; special investigation of the relation of acid and sugar in grapes during ripening, 36 ; peculiarity of ripening of the grapes of the “enfarine,” English “black cluster,” 40.

Chapter II. General Principles Of Viticulture

Soil favourable to viticulture, 46 ; manuring and improvement of the soil in vineyards, 49 ; improvement of the soil, 50 ; manuring, 52 ; modes of propagating and multiplying the vine, 57 ; summary of general principles of the cultivation of the vine, 67.

Chapter III. Special Elucidation Of The Principles Of Viticulture

Cultivation of the vine in low lines and on a permanent trunk, 71 ; provining as distinguished from laying and producing a new trunk, 73 ; pruning of the vine, 76 ; time for pruning, 79 ; pinching and cutting the new branches or shoots, 81 ; treatment of the vine during vegetation, 84 ; support and protection of the vine, 86 ; necessity of protecting the vine against early frosts, spring rains, and bail, 88 ; mode in which the vine is touched by early spring frosts, 92 ; varieties of vines to be selected for cultivation, 94 ; selection of the most suitable species for the different parts of France, 98.

MV

CONTENTS.

Chapter IV. Vintage Anl) Vinification

Time of vintage, 100 ; modes of vintage, 103 ; separation of stalks, 105 ; mashing and crushing, 107; wine-presses and pressing, 108; fermentation, no; production of wine by the process of Petiot, 112; special apparatus and rules required for the production of sugar-solution wines, 1 1 5 > adjustment of acidity and sugar which ought to be made in must before it is allowed to ferment, 116 ; description of the proceedings for making fruit or grape wines, according to the method of Gall, 117; plastering of wine and must, 119.

Chapter V. Chemistry Of Alcohol

Physical characters of alcohol, 124 ; elementary constitution and chemical character - of alcohol and its homologues, 128 ; determination of the alcohol of wine, 132 ; methods of alcohol-determination based upon the specific gravity of alcoholic mixtures, 133; distillation, ib. ; determination of the specific gravity of the alcohol by indirect means, 138 ; methods of alcohol-determination based upon the boiling-point of alcoholic mixtures, 142 ; method of alcohol-determination based upon the vapour tension of alcoholic liquids, 147 ; Geisler’s instrument, vaporimeter, ib. ; method of alcohol-determination based upon the expansibility of alcoholic mixtures by heat, 152 ; Silbermann’s dilatometer, ib. ; resume, 1 5 7 ; experiments on the state in which alcohol is contained in wine, 158 ; aldehydes in wine, 16 1 ; acet-aldehyde, ib.

Chapter VI. The Acids In Wine

Lists of acids, 164; varieties of tartaric acid, ib. ; malic acid, 169; succinic acid, 171 ; relations of the foregoing acids to each other, 173 ; acetic acid, 174; formic, propionic, butyric, valerianic, caproic, etc. acids, 183 ; series of fatty acids, ib. ; cenanthic acid, 188; cenanthic anhydride, 189; estimation of the quantity of acids in wine, ib. ; estimation of tartaric acid and bitartrate ot potassium in wine, 192.

Chapter VII. The Ethers In Wine

Acetoethylic ether, iy8 ; aceto-propylic, butylic, amylic, caproylic, etc. ethers,

199 ; butyro-ethylic, caprylo-ethylic, capro-ethylic, and pelargo-ethylic ethers,

200 ; cenanthic ether, ib. ; tartaric ether, 201 ; Berthelot’s estimation of the ethers in wine, 202 ; new process for the determination of ethers in wine, 203 ; consideration of Perthelot’s theory of the limitation of ethers in wine, 216 ; smell, bouquet, aroma, etc. of wine, 219.

CONTENTS.

xv

Chapter VIII. The Varieties Of Sugar Occurring In Wine, And Methods Bor Their

DETERMINATION.

Origin of sugar in wine, 222 • cane-sugar, sucrose, 223 ; grape sugar, starch sugar, dextrose or right-handed glucose, 224; fruit sugar, levulose, left-handed glucose, 225 ; invert sugar, ib. ; quantitative estimation of sugar, saccharometry, 226 ; polarizing saccharometers of Mitscherlich, Soleil, and Jellett, 237 ; optical examination of wine for sugar, 247.

Chapter IX

FATTY, COLOURING, ALBUMINOUS, ASTRINGENT, EXTRACTIVE, AND MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF WINE. —ANALYTICAL TABLES.

Glycerine, 253 ; colouring matters, 255 ; ammonia, 260 ; albuminous matters, 260 ; estimation of ammonia and albumen in wine by Wanklyn and Chapman’s process, 261 ; tannin, 263 ; extractives, 265 ; mineral constituents, 266 ; estimation of ash, 267 ; analysis of ash, -ib. ; total solid constituents, 272 ; instruments and chemical reagents necessary for the performance of an analysis of wine,, 277 ; syllabus of analysis, 278 ; tables exhibiting the results of the analyses of various wines from the principal' wine-producing countries, 28 1.

Chapter X. Wines Of The Gironde

The Gironde,. 305 ; the Medoc, 306 ; vines cultivated in the Medoc, 307 • modes of cultivating the soil and vine in the Medoc, 310 ; the vintage in the Medoc, 32 w qualification- of the wines of the Medoc, 326 ; list of classified growths of the*Medoc, 329 ; prices of the Medoc wines, 331 ; mode of effecting sales in the Medoc, 332 ; consumption of Medoc wines, 333 ; statistics of viticultural property and production of the Medoc, 334; the Graves, 348 ;. viticultural statistics of the Sauternes district producing white wines, 357 ; viticultural statistics of the part of the Graves or Sauternes district producing red wines, 362 ; nines of the hill-sides or cotes of the Gironde, 365 ; classification of the wines of St. Emilion and enumeration of the communes of the Libourne district,. 370; viticultural statistics of the district of Blaye (Blayais), 371 ; viticultural statistics of the district on the right bank of the Garonne, producing white wines, 375 ; viticultural statistics of the district of the Marshes (Palus, Entre deux Mers), 379.

Chapter XI. Wines Of Roussillon And Languedoc

Wines of Roussillon, the Oriental Pyrenees : Topography and varieties of vines, 381 ; mode of cultivation, 382 ; mode of making the Muscat wine,, 386 ; mode of making the Malvoisie and Maccabeo wines, 387 ; vineyard of

XVI

CONTENTS.

Perpignan, 388 ; recapitulation of the wines of Roussillon, 389 ; shipment of the wines of Roussillon, ib. Wines oe Languedoc : Topography and soil, 390 ; vines cultivated, 391 ; distinguished growths of the department of the Aude, 394 ; remarkable growths of the department of the Gard, ib. ; remarkable growth of the Herault, 396 ; Muscat wines, 398 ; manufacture of Trois-six and Eau-de-vie at Montpellier, ib.

Chapter XII. Wines Of The East Of France

Wines of the Rhone Valley: Topographical survey, 404; Cote-du-Rhbne, 405 ; Chateau-neuf-du-Pape, 406 ; vineyard of St. Peray Ardeche, 408 ; vineyard of the Ermitage, 409 ; vineyards of Crozes, Larnage, and Mercurol, 41 1 ; vineyards of La Roliere and Die, ib. ; vineyard of Condrieu (department of the Rhone), 412; vineyard of Cote-Rotie (department of the Rhone), 413. Wines of the Saone Valley : General survey of the Beaujolais, Maconnais, and the Chalon Cote, 414; the Beaujolais, 415 ; dominating vines, and their cultivation, ib. ; vintage, 417; general classification of the wines, ib. ; classification of the Beaujolais wines by the traders of Macon, 418 ; the Maconnais, general division of district and soil, ib. ; predominating vines, 419 ; mode of cultivation, vintage and treatment of red wines, 420 ; cultivation of the white vine, maturing and character of white wine, 421 ; classification of the Maconnais wines by the traders of Macon, 422 ; Cote of Chalon, ib.

Chapter XIII. The Wines Of Burgundy

Introduction, 425 ; topography of Burgundy, 426 ; varieties of vines planted in the Bourgogne, 427; mode of cultivation, 428; manuring, 430; labour, 431; grafting, 432; summer treatment of the vine, 434; vintage, ib..; vatting and fermentation, 437 ; presses and pressing, 441 ; after-treatment of the wine in Burgundy, 442 ; area and classification of the vineyards in the arrondissement of Beaune, 443.

Chapter XIV. The Wines Of The Champagne

Topography, 444 ; soil of the Champagne, 450 ; preparation of the soil, planting of vineyards, and cultivation of the vine, 451 ; value of the vineyards, 453; varieties of vines grown in the Champagne, ib. ; the vintage in the Champagne, 455 ! pressing, fermentation, cellaring, and fining of the wine, 458; the drawing into bottles (tirage), 463 ; clearing of the bottles of yeast, or disgorging, 466 ; liqueuring, corking, and finishing, 467 ; varieties and qualities of champagne, and quantity and increase of its production, 470 ; short history of champagne and its manufacture, 473 ; scientific consideration of the champagne preparation process, 475.

CONTENTS.

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Chapter XV

WINES OF THE VALLEYS OF THE LOIRE AND CHARENTE. — GENERAL CLASSI- FICATION OF THE WINES OF FRANCE.

Vines of the valley of the Loire, 487 ; mode of cultivation, 48S ; department of the Charente and Cognac, 490 ; varieties of vines producing the eau-de-vie of Cognac, ib. ; mode of obtaining the eau-de-vie of Cognac, 491 ; names of the vines cultivated in the different parts of France, 493 ; general classification of the wines of France, 495; red wines, first class, ib. ; red wines, second class, 496 ; red wines, third class, 497 ; red wines, fourth class, 498 ; red wines, fifth class, 501 ; white wines, first class, 509 ; white wines, second class, ib. ; white wines, third class, 510; white wines, fourth class, 5 1 1 ; white wines, fifth class, 512; liqueur wines, first class, 515; liqueur wines, second class, 516; liqueur wines, third class, ib. ; list of the second-rate vineyards of France producing good ordinary wines, 517.

CPIAPTER XVI.

THE WINES OF ALSATIA ; OF THE PALATINATE, OR RHENISH BAVARIA ; OF RHENISH HESSIA ; OF FRANCONIA, OR THE UPPER MAINE; OF BADEN, WURTEMBERG, AND HESSE NORTH OF THE MAINE.

Wines of Alsatia : Vines and cultivation, 525 ; classification of the wines of Alsatia, 527 ; liqueur wines, and second-rate vineyards, 528. Wines of the Palatinate, or Rhenish Bavaria : Topography, 528 ; mode of cultivation, 530 ; the closed-chamber training, or Kammerbau, ib. ; prevailing vines, 533 ; advantages of the mixed sets of vines in the vineyards of the Palatinate, 535. Wines OF Rhenish Hessia : Liebfraumilch, Oberingelheirrj and Scharlachberg, 536 ; area of the vineyards of the villages in the province of Rhenish Hessia, 537. Wines of Franconia, or the Upper Maine : Topography of Franconia, 540 ; the Leiste, ib. ; cultivation of the vine, 541 ; variety of vines in the Leiste, ib. ; the Stein, 542 ; viticulture in the neighbourhood of Wurtzburg, 543. Wines of Baden, Wurtemberg, and Hesse north of the Maine: Markgrafler, Affenthaler, and the Pfaffenwald, 544.

Chapter XVII

THF. WINES OF THE RHEINGAU ; OF THE LOWER MAINE ; AND OF THE

MOSELLE.

The Rheingau : Topography, 545 ; historical notes, 547 ; varieties of vines cultivated in the Rheingau, 548 ; general condition of the Rheingau, 531. Hochheim : Topography and soil, 552 ; Ellfeld (or Eltville), 557 ; Rauenthal, 559; Kiedricb, ib. ; the Steinberg, 560; the Johannisberg, 567 ; Geisenheim, 571 ; Rudesheim, 572 ; Assmannshausen, 574; area of vineyards in bearing in the former Duchy, now Prussian province, of Nassau, 576 ; recapitulation, 577 ;

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CONTEXTS.

Rhenish measures of capacity, 578. The Wines of the Moselle : Topography, 578 ; varieties of vines and modes of cultivation prevailing along the Moselle, 580; the vintage, 583 ; characters of Moselle wine, ib. ; area of the vineyards in the province of Rhenish Prussia, 586.

Chapter XVIII. The Wines Of Austria

The Wines of Lower Austria : Wines of Kloster Neuburg, 587 ; the red wine of Voslau near Vienna, 588. The Wines and Grapes of the Tyrol : Topography, 590; vinification, 593; the grape cure at Meran, 594. The Wines of Styria : Topography and soil, 596 ; social condition of Styria as influencing viticulture, 598 ; soil, 600 ; varieties of vines cultivated, ib. ; mode of planting and cultivating the vine, 602 ; vinification in Styria, 603 ; the pressing in .Styria, 604 ; quantity and nature of the wine produced, ib. Wines of Croatia: Introduction, 606; prevailing vines, ib. ; mode of cultivation, 607 ; exhibition of wines at Agram in 1864, 609. Wines of Dalmatia : Topography and climate, 61 1 ; mode of cultivation, 612 ; varieties of vines, 613 ; vintage and vinification, 614 ; description of the wines, 615. Wines OF ' Istria : Topography and viticulture, 617; vines, vinification, and wines, 618. Wines of Gortz, 619. Wines of Bohemia, 620.

Chapter XIX. The Wines Of Hungary

The Wines of Hungary : Introductory remarks, 622 ; topography, 623 ; varieties of soil, 624 ; varieties of vines, ib. ; mode of cultivation, 626 ; vintage, 627 ; vinification, 628 ; composition of the fousel oil of Hungarian wines, ib. classification of Hungarian wines, 629.

Chapter XX. The Wines Of Spain

Introduction and topography, 632 ; wines of Xeres, or sherries, 635 ; soil, 636; vines of the sherry districts, 637 ; episodical comparison of the density of sherry must, with the specific gravity of must produced from different vines in various countries and years, 638 ; modes of making sherry, 644 ; treatment of wines in the Bodega, 645 ; alcoholic strength of sherries, 648 ; natural sherry, 649 ; simmering, boiling, and sugaring of must, 650 ; preparation of wine for export, 651 ; mixing stations, 652; Manzanilla, ib. ; fashion influencing sherry, 653"; wines of Niebla, Moguer, etc., ib. ; wines of Rota, 654 ; wines of the Val de Penas, ib. ; wines of Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia, ib. ; wines of Granada, 657 » viticultural statistics of the district of Xercs de la Frontera, 659.

CONTENTS.

xix

Chapter XXI. The Wines Of Portugal

Topography of the port wine district, 672 ; preparation of the soil on the Douro, 673; varieties of vines grown on the Douro, 674; mode of cultivating the vine, ib. ; vintage and modes of vinification, 675 ; jeropiga, 677 ; remarks on vinification on the Douro, ib. ; on the addition of brandy to port wine, 678 ; the elder-tree on the Douro, 684 ; historical notes of the port wine trade, 686 ; value of port wine, ib. ; white port, 687 ; possible extension of production of port wines, ib. ; alphabetical list of the principal places in the wine districts of the Alto Douro, 688 ; other wines of Portugal, ib.

Chapter XXII. The Wines Of The Atlantic Islands

First Group: Madeira and the small Desertas. — Historical note, 691 ; soil, ib. \ varieties of vines, 692; mode of cultivation, ib. ; vintage and vinification, ib. ; maturation of . the wine, 693 ; description of the wines, ib. ; classification of growths, 694 ; quantity of wine produced, ib. Second Group : the Canaries, comprising Teneriffe, Canaria, Lanzerote, Fuerteventura, Palma, Gomera, and Ferro. — Vines, situation, wines — mal vasia and canary-sect, vino seco or seccato, production, o'idium, 695. Third Group : the Azores, comprising Pico, Terceira, San Miguel, Fayal, San Jorge, and Graciosa, 695-696.

Chapter XXIII. The Wines Of Italy, Roumania, Greece, And The Turkish Islands

Wines of Italy : Wines of Piedmont, 697 ; wines of Sardinia, 698 ; wines of Tuscany, ib. ; wines of Lombardy and Venetia, 699 ; wines of Central Italy, 701 ; Neapolitan wines, ib. ; wines of Sicily, 702. Wines of Macedonia and Thessaly (Roumania), 703. Wines of Greece: General remarks, 703 ; vines, 704; vinification, 705 ; South Thessaly, ib. ; Livadia, ib. ; Morea, 706 ; the islands of the Archipelago, ib. ; Santorin, ancient Thera, 707 ; mode of training the vine, ib. ; varieties of vines, 708 ; quantity of wine produced, ib. ; qualities of the wines, ib. ; Ionian Islands, ib. Wines of THE Turkish Islands : Candia, Rhodes, Cyprus, 709-710.

Chapter XXIV. The Wines Of Asia

W ines of Caucasia : Cachetia, Georgia, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Armenia, and Schirwan, 711-712. Wines of Persia: King Dschemschid, 712-713.

Wines of Shiraz: Description of vines grown at Shiraz. — Production, consumption, and export of Persian wines, 713-716.

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CONTENTS.

Chapter XXV. The Wines Of Africa. — Wines Of The Cai'e Of Rood Hope

Topography, climate, and soil, 717; historical note concerning viticulture at the Cape, 718; varieties of vines cultivated at the Cape, ib.; peculiarities of cultivation, vintage and vinification, 719; qualification of Cape wines, 720 ; imports of Cape wine into England, ib. ; principal viticultural districts and estates, ib. The Vine in other parts of Africa : Indigenous vines of Madagascar, French Islands, Morocco, its vines and raisins, Algiers, Egypt, 722-723.

Chapter XXVI. The Vines And Wines Of America

Historical notes on the cultivation of the vine in North America, 724 ; the wild or indigenous vines of North America, 725; cultivation of the vine in America, 731 ; varieties of vines cultivated in North America, 732 ; cultivation of vines foreign to America, 734; vinification in the United States, statistical notes on the production of wine in North America, 735 ; extent of trade in sparkling Catawba, acreage under viticulture, 736 ; years of good and bad vintages in North America, 737.

Chapter XXVII. The Wines Of Australia

Historical note, 738 ; peculiarities of the Australian climate, 739 ; viticulture in New South Wales, 740 ; viticulture in South Australia, 741 ; viticulture in Victoria, 741 ; description of Australian wines, 742 ; conclusion, 744 ; alcohol or spirit tables, 746-752.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. Inflorescence of Hermaphrodite Wild and Cultivated Vines

2. Inflorescence of Male or Sterile Wild Vines, with open honey-cup in

place of fruit ......... r ^

3. Inflorescence of Female or Fructiferous Wild Vines, with recurved

4. Leaves of Sterile “Mescle” ....... 1

5. Leaves of Fertile “Mescle” ....... 1

6. Impressions of Leaves of the Fossil Vine ( Vitis teutonica ) on blocks of

lignite from Salzhausen . . . . . . . .15

7. Polar and equatorial limits of the culture of the Vine in Europe and

Asia . 1 7

8. Apparatus for measuring the pressure of the rising sap .

9. Ey|| ready for planting in open beds in vineyards

10. Young Vine, one summer’s growth, from eye planted in open bed in

1 1. Eye and slice of cane ready for being embedded in earth. Pot of earth with the eye embedded, plunged in tan . . . . -59

12. Cut Canes, ready for being planted ....... 61

13. Vine, one of the canes of which has been buried to form a layer . . 62

14. Hook-shaped gouging chisel for producing grooves for grafting . . 65

15. A vine cut off transversely, and provided with the groove for receiving

the graft : the graft with the bark removed where it is to fit into the groove of the stock ; a rooted graft, and its appearance after planting and grafting are completed ... ... 66

16. Mode of provining in the Champagne ...... 74

17. Vine trained according to the system of Guyot, as it appears in

autumn, after removal of fruit and leaves . . . 75

XXII

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.

1 8. Vine trained according to the system of Guyot, as it appears after being

pruned . . .

19. Vine trained according to the system of Guyot, as it appeal's at the

period of growth when the flower buds are developed and pinching may be effected . . . . . • • • • •

20. Line of Vines trained according to the system of Guyot, with stakes

and wires, in full bearing

21. Mode of separating stalks from grapes by stirring with a trident .

22. Machine for separating grapes from stalks ......

23. Grape mill for crushing grapes, with grooved rollers ....

24. Wine press as used in the Gironde for pressing the murk of red wine

after fermentation .........

25. Wine press as used in the Gironde for pressing white grapes before

fermentation ..........

26. Specific gravity bottle ..........

27. Apparatus employed for the distillation of wine , .

28. Elevation and section of Pohl’s Ebullioscope .....

29. Crockford’s Patent Spirit Indicator, with hydrometer for taking the

specific gravity of the wine ........

30. Geisler’s Vaporimeter .........

31. Silbermann’s Dilatometer .........

32. Apparatus employed for the decomposition of the fixed ethers of wine,

and for the distillation of acetic acid in the estimation of fixed ethers

33. Water-bath

34. Measuring flask ......... ^

36. Polarization of Light by reflection .......

37. Showing the direction of the vibrations in a ray of light, &c., polar-

ized by reflection ..........

38. Elevation and section of an elongated prism of Iceland spar-, showing

the direction in which it is cut when made into a Nicol’s prism

39. Longitudinal section of Nicol’s prism ..... j

40. Sections of two Nicol’s prisms superimposed . . . . \

41. Cylinder of a substance possessing the power of circular polarization .

42. Jellett’s Polarometer arranged for an experiment ....

43. Right prism of Iceland spar cut from an elongated rhombic prism 1

44. Perspective view of Jellett’s analysing prism . . . . )

45. Section of Jellett’s analysing prism ...... i

46. Diagram of the planes of polarization in Jellett’s prism . . )

I'AGK

109 134 »35

144 148 153

236 240

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. *

47. Section of compensating bottle, &c., of Jellett’s saccharometer .

48. Flat porcelain crucible for evaporating the 20 c. c. of wine .

49. Normally trained vines of the Haut Medoc, 4 years old, 8 years-old,

50. Normally trained vines of the Haut Medoc, 40 years old and 90 years

51. Normal cultivation of the Haut Medoc ......

52. Lines of vines, the earth in course of being dressed with the plough

53. Vines in lines on ridges, the earth being thrown up around the stems

( chaussees )

54. A vine upwards of 100 years of age, as trained at Malines, near Ver-

55. Vine supported by a walnut-tree, as seen at Celles, canton of Monta-

gries, arrondissement of Riberac, departement de la Dordogne

56. Vine trained upon a tree called “goblet-shape,” as seen at St. Gaudens,

near Toulouse, departement de la Haute Garonne

57. Normal cultivation of the Graves .......

58. Normal cultivation of the Sauternes district . . . . .

59. Vine as trained in the Saint Emilion district and in the Palus of the

Fronsadais . . . . . . . . . .

60. Vines of the Palus (Villenave d’Ornon) pruned for spring growth

61. Vineyards of Banyuls, Port-Vendres, and Collioure ....

62. Vine of the Herault, with all its wood, as seen in winter . .