Child problems

Preface

The chief purpose of this book is to give its readers a general view of the principal social child problems of to-day. These problems are rapidly becoming prominent in the public mind, and therefore some book which contains a survey of the principles and facts relating to this series of questions should be distinctly serviceable. The author hopes that this book will, at least in a measure, meet this need. An effort has been made to adapt it to the use of the student engaged in college or university work, and also to the general reader who wishes to cultivate this important field of social endeavor.

The author takes great pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness to Professor Eichard T. Ely for his careful reading of the manuscript and for his many valuable suggestions, both as to form and subject-matter. Thanks are also due to Mr. E. A. Hall of Chicago, for his helpful criticisms of a portion of the manuscript. Finally, the author wishes to recognize the services of his wife, especially in her collection and formulation of the material in the chapter on “ The Education of Backward Children.

G. B. M.

St. Louis.

V

Introduction . ....

1. Child Problems and Heredity .

2. Child Problems and Environment .

3. Social Obligations to Childhood

а. The Preservation of Life

б. The Preservation of Health

c. The Eight to Play .

d. The Right to Freedom from Work

e. The Right to Education .

PAGB

8 9

Book I. Infant And Child Moetality

Infant and Child Mortality. Historical .... 15

1. Introductory 15

2. Decline in the Death Rates of Children .... 16

3. Historical Stages 18

а. First Period 18

б. Second Period. Stationary 19

c. Third Period. Preventive Methods ... 20

1. The Waste of Life .22

2. Economic Cost of Child Mortality 24

3. Physiological Cost 26

4. Social Costs 29

5. The Decline in Birth Rates 30

6. Physical Degeneracy 32

1. Rural vs. Urban Mortality 36

vii

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Negro vs. White Death Rates .

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PAGE

Differences among Cities ....

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Differences based upon Social and Industrial Conditions .

Reasonable Rates of Mortality .

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General Rates in the United States .

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Estimate of Preventable Deaths

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Specific Diseases a. Diphtheria

6. Measles and Scarlet Fever c. Whooping Cough and Bronchitis .

d. Diseases of the Digestive System e. Prematurity

/. Convulsions and Meningitis

.2.

Proportionate Mortality from Principal Diseases

Principal Causes

Classification of Causes ....

Use of Artificial Foods ....

Heat and Neglect as Contributory Causes

Bad Housing Conditions ....

* •

CHAPTER VI

The Milk Problem ......

The Milk Factor

Requisites of Good Milk ....

Pasteurization vs. Sterilization

The Experience of Rochester, New York .

Milk Depots in Other Cities

Clinics for Babies

Dairy Inspection

Summary

CHAPTER Vn

Supplementary Methods of Decreasing Mortality

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Avoidance of Artificial Foods .

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

PAGE

2. Parental Education . . 81

3. The Visiting Nurse 83

4. The Day Nursery 84

6. Education of Girls 85

6. Training of Boys 86

7. Municipal Campaigns against Infant Mortality . . 87

8. Prevention of Overcrowding 88

9. Prevention of Employment of Married Women . . 89

10. Suppression of Other Causes of Mortality ... 90

11. Summary 91

Book II. Recent Aspects Of Educational Reform

CHAPTEK I

Play 96

2. Physical Effects of Play 95

3. Play and Tuberculosis 96

4. The Social Values of Play 97

6. Mental Value of Play 100

6. Recent Appreciation of Play 101

1. The Play Problem 103

2. Origin of the Movement 105

3. Types of Playgrounds 106

4. The Civic Centers of Chicago 109

5. Progress of the Playground Movement . . . .Ill

6. Method of Administration 113

CHAPTER m

1. Theory of Inspection 117

2. Nature of Inspection 119

3. Organization of School Inspection ..... 120

4. The Medical Inspector 122

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PAGE

5. The School Nurse ' 123

6. The Teacher 125

7. The School Child 125

8. Legal Provision for Medical Inspection .... 126

The Education op Backward Children .... 128

2. Number of Backward Children 129

3. Causes of Mental Dullness ...... 130

4. Origin and Results of the Work Abroad .... 132

6. Work in the United States 133

6. Needs of Backward Children 135

7. Organization of Special Classes 137

1. Literary Education 140

2. Illiteracy 140

3. The Adaptation of Education 142

4. Present Limitations of Education 143

5. Compulsory Education 144

6. Untrained Children in Industry' 145

7. Industrial Training 147

а. Public Instruction 149

б. Private Trade Training 153

8. Instruction in Sex Physiology 154

Book III. Child Labor

1. Avarice of Parents 169

2. Desire of the Child to Work 161

3. Greed of Employers 162

4. Modern Industrial Conditions 166

6. Indifference of the Public 167

XI

CHAPTER n

PAGE

1. Occupational Distribution 170

2. Territorial Distribution 175

3. Age and Literacy 176

4. Night Work of Children 178

6. Overtime 180

6. Home Work 180

1. Importance of Physical Development . . . .182

2. Present Physical Requirements 183

3. Effect of Premature Employment ..... 184

4. Incidental Results of Child Labor 184

6. Unhealthful Occupations 185

6. Effect of Night Work 188

2. Economic Cost of Child Labor 192

3. Social Costs 195

4. Moral Effects 196

1. Evolution of Legislation 201

2. Agencies Supporting Legislation 201

3. Uniformity of Laws 203

4. A Model Law 204

5. Hours ©f Labor 205

6. Night Work 206

7. Age Limits 207

8. Working Papers 208

9. Educational Requirements 209

10. Dangerous Trades 211

11. Industries Exempted ....... 212

12. Enforcement of Law 214

Xll

Book IV. The Delinquent Child Page

Causes and Natuke op Juvenile Delinquency . . . 221

1. Development of the Juvenile Delinquent .... 221

2. Moral Classification of Children 223 a. Home Conditions 225

h. Environment and Associations .... 229

c. Criminal Tendencies 230

d. Street Trades 232

4. Nature of Juvenile Offenses 232

1. Origin of the Court 235

2. Organization 236

3. Court Hearings 237

4. Disposition of Offenders 240

5. Qualifications of the Juvenile Court Judge . . . 241

6. Evolution of the Juvenile Court 243

1. Origin of the System 245

2. Extent of the System 245

3. Probation Officers and their Duties 246

а. Investigating Officials 247

б. Parole Officers 248

c. Unpaid Officials 249

d. Volunteer Probation Officers 251

e. The Judge as Probation Officer .... 253

4. Qualities of Probation Officers ...... 264

6. Probation Districts 264

6. Length of Probation 255

7. Number of Cases per Official 266

8. Results of Probation 267

9. Essentials of a Successful Probation System . . . 269

Xlll

PAGE

Evolution of Institutional Treatment

Present Functions of Institutions

Types of Institutions a. Detention Homes

6. Parental or Truant Schools c. Training Schools, Industrial Schools,

and

Houses

of Refuge ....

Separation of Sexes ....

The Cottage System ....

Physical Training ....

i •

Industrial and Literary Training

Discipline

Number of Delinquents in Institutions

Term of Commitment

Essentials of Reformatory Institutions

The Prevention op Juvenile Delinquency

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Investigation of Causes .

•

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Improved Methods of Legal Control

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Juvenile Improvement Associations

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•

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Boys’ Clubs

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•

.

Parks and Playgrounds

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•

Amusements .....

r

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Contributory Delinquency Laws

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Socialization of the Public School .

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•

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Compulsory School Attendance and Prevention of Tru-

ancy

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Vocational Training.

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•

Prohibition of the Street Trades and Other Measures of

Child Protection .

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Education of Parents

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XIV

Book V. The Dependent And Neglected Child

PAGK

The Importance of the Home .

Types of Dependents

Causes of Dependency

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Number of Dependent Children

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Placing out vs. the Institution .

• • • •

• • • .

The Foster Home ....

• • • •

The Cottage Plan ....

State Supervision and Incorporation of

Private Agencies

Cooperation

• • • •

Children in Almshouses .

Defective Children ....

• • • •

Methods op Child Saving. Private

• • • •

The Children’s Aid Society

Guiding Principles ....

Work of the New York Society

• • • •

Placing Out

Difficulties of Placing Out

• • • .

The Temporary Home

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Results of the Placing-out System .

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Adoption

.

Dangers of Incompetent Management

.

Needs and Reforms ....

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Methods op Child Saving. Private {continued') .

Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children .

a. Functions of Societies

• • • •

TABLE OP CONTENTS XV

PAGE

6. Work of Typical Societies 328

2. The Institution 330

а. Disadvantages of the Institution .... 330

б. Advantages . 332

3. Foundling Asylums 333

4. Conclusion 334

1. The State School System 335

a. Essential Elements of the State School System . 336

h. Placing Out 338

c. Results of System 338

2. Boarding and Placing-out Systems 339

a. Child Saving in New Jersey 339

h. Methods in the District of Columbia . . . 340

c. The Massachusetts Board of Charity . . . 340

3. The County Home System 342

4. Public Subsidy System 342

5. Public Care of Cruelty Cases 343

6. The Future of State Systems 344

Conclusion 349

Bibliography 364

,t

Society is slowly beginning to realize that Child Problems are the greatest problems of our time. This growing consciousness is a direct outgrowth of the increasing foresightedness of philanthropic workers and their continuous agitation in favor of preventive methods of social betterment. The superiority of the “ounce of preventions^ has long since been admitted, but the practical application of the principle has been inexcusably retarded. In recent years only have our sociological students emphasized the supreme importance of building our social structure on the child. “The child is father to the man’^ has become the motto of intelligent social work. It is slowly dawning upon the discerning philanthropist that the child is a bundle of miscellaneous potentialities and is portentous of good or evil almost exactly in proportion to the training and opportunities which he receives during the plastic period of his childhood. Therefore the greater need of enthusiastic effort to mold the child into the symmetrically developed adult. If society would concentrate more of its now dissipated energies upon the problems of the child, it could with an equal expenditure of effort accomplish more good than can be realized from any other form of philanthropic endeavor. The problems themselves are, however, most varied and their solution must be the result of the most painstaking effort.

B

1. Child Problems and Heredity.

The task of relating the problems of childhood to heredity depends upon the work of biologists whose investigations are continually adding to our knowledge of the subject. This knowledge will throw light on the degree of training of which children are susceptible. Certain facts have been so definitely established that the sociologist can use them as fundamental propositions upon which to build his system of preventive work. In many cases the child is already doomed at birth, and no subsequent training can give to him a normal social life. Defective heredity is annually responsible for a large number of children who are condemned to lifelong handicaps, such as idiocy, imbecility, backwardness, deaf-mutism, blindness, predisposition to criminalit3q or certain forms of constitutional disease. As a result of such hereditj^ these defects may be expected to reappear in the offspring of each subsequent generation. The problem of the defective child, however, occupies a separate field and is necessarily excluded from discussion in this book. We can only allude to the guiding principle that the child be well born ; that is, that he be endowed at birth with capacity for development into a perfectly normal individual. The accomplishment of this result requires good parentage and depends upon work among adults rather than among children.

2. Child Problems and Environment.

It is now clear that the development of the child is largely determined by his environmental conchtions, both prenatal and postnatal. In the study of the influence of environment the opinion of the expert sociologist should carry weight, and his investigations are establishing certain conclusions upon which definite rules of action can now be based. The knowledge that a bad environment is responsible for the seriousness of many of our child problems paves the way for a more comprehensive and feasible treatment of the subject than could be given if bad heredity were the root of the difficulties. Much has already been accomplished by carrying into effect the suggestions of sociologists holding this point of view. Furthermore, prenatal causes of defects in children must increasingly receive the attention of biologists in order that society may demand proper attention for the mother during the gestational period. To what extent a special psychical bent can thus be deliberately imparted to the child is not yet known. At present, comparatively little importance is attached to this idea, but the belief that causal relationships exist has considerable support. The more important question, however, is, What influence does the physical condition of the expectant mother have upon the physique of the child ? That the child may suffer constitutionally if subjected to abnormal conditions during the prenatal period is unquestionable. The foetus, if insufficiently nourished, may be retarded in its development, or defects in physical structure ensue, and the child may always remain a defective. The character of nutrition before and immediately after birth is one of the most important manageable factors in the physical development of the child. These phases of the subject should be studied in greater detail by the specialist.

As has been shown by John Fiske, the absolute helplessness of the newly born babe and the prolongation of the period of childhood furnish the human being with untold possibilities of development. The comparative unimportance of instinct and the supreme plasticity of the child allow the marvelous development of reason that man has enjoyed. The impressionable child easily yields to the influence of contact with the remaining members of the family. In early life certain characteristics and psychical traits become relatively fixed owing to the constant association with special mental types. That part of the child’s psychical nature which is clearly and absolutely individual and unique is relatively small. The greater portion of his characteristic mental endowment is gained from the interaction of his own small mental nucleus with the minds of his parents and of the other members of the family. The fixation of traits in the human being should be a paramount consideration in the training and development of the child during the entire adolescent period of his life. It is well known how ardently adults cling to the beliefs and traditions acquired during childhood. Right training from the earliest self-conscious moments of the child’s life is, therefore, a matter of great sociological importance. Social heredity within the family — that is, the transmission of ancestral ideas, traditions, prejudices, and knowledge — is a powerful factor in the life of every normal individual. “Like father, like son,” is often largely the result of this species of communication and influence. The general tendency of the children to follow the religious and political inclination of their parents illustrates the power of social heredity, which is in actual fact a condition of environment.

Most important among the conditions of environment are the home surroundings of the child. His home emdronment continues comparatively unchanged for a longer period of time than do external conditions. Home life and adequate home training are, therefore, vital in the development of the child. Unless prevented, the boy, particularly, soon becomes partially subject to influences emanating from without the home, and these in turn tend to mold his character as well as to affect his physical well-being. His associates, the manner of his life, the sanitary conditions of school, street, alle3q or workshop — all of these considerations directly affect both his physique and character. Attention to the environment of the child both within and without the home is accordingly the sine qua non of the solution of our child problems.

3. Social Obligations to Childhood.

Nowhere does history indicate that so many rights were accorded to childhood as are conceded to it to-day. Men have been accustomed to life in the present, taking but little thought of the morrow. They have considered but slightly the influence of the existing condition of society on the character of the society of the future. As thought for the morrow has increased, society has become more unselfish and has begun to build for the interests of the coming generations. This has frequently involved a relative subordination of immediate interests and has been accompanied by considerable cost. The self-abnegation of society consists usually of the sacrifice of present pleasures for the future advantage of the race. Carried out consistently, such a policy eventually results in the development of certain rights of childhood. Some of these expanding rights are not yet adequately recognized by society. As the existence of abstract rights may be questioned, it will be less confusing to consider these claims upon the present generation as obligations to childhood.

a. The Preservation of Life.

The first claim of the child upon society is that of proper care while a helpless babe so that he may retain the independent life given to him at birth. He was not consulted in regard to the desirability of coming into existence and had no power to will or forbid this event. The individuals who are responsible for his birth have therefore incurred new responsibilities and obligations. The child has a right to a fair chance for life. If parents are delinquent in furnishing their children with this opportunity, it is the clear duty of the state to interfere in behalf of defrauded childhood. The duty of society to the child must be gradually extended because parental neglect imposes a relatively greater social loss and cost as civilization advances and becomes more complex. Society should determine what class of children shall be allowed to come into existence, but, once born, all normal children have the unequivocal right to be saved from all forms of preventable death.

The right to life is indicated in the penalty for the premeditated destruction of foetal life. Primitive society, however, seldom recognized this obligation, and many tribes even claimed the right to sacrifice all children who were not desired. Infanticide has been a common practice among nearly all savage peoples and was not unknown among semicivilized tribes. The Africa and Asia of to-day still furnish numerous examples of this practice. Not only has it been customary to slay the weak, crippled, and defective, but the life of all, especially that of female children, depended upon the caprice of the parents. Fortunately, civilized nations with higher ideals have controlling power among these barbarous peoples, and the crime of infanticide has been almost abolished.

Among the poor in our own country and also in other civilized lands a situation has arisen which in general results does not differ materially from the infanticide of old. This statement may be illustrated by many authenticated cases of which the following is an ordinary example : In one of our large cities a mother has given birth to eleven children, all of whom, with two exceptions, are now dead. Ignorance and lack of care have been the predominant causes of this heavy mortality. The last two children were twins, and owing to absolute inability and ignorance on the part of the mother they became badly diseased. The physician recommended that they be sent to the hospital, but the mother at first refused to allow them to go. When finally taken they died within a few days. Society has still to learn the vital truths that its own interests are paramount, that mothers have a right to knowledge and opportunity, and that such instances of cruelty must not be tolerated. In sheer self-defense, society must develop the principles of justifiable interference with the species of neglect illustrated above. Our obligations to extend to infants the right to life demand this development.

h. The Preservation of Health.

Nothing militates against future industrial and social efficiency so much as does the absence of health. Without health, education and training are almost impossible and the physical and mental faculties are permanently impaired. Boys need to be given the opportunity to grow up into robust men, and in the case of the girls, physical training and muscular exercise are even more necessary, especially since the tendency of civilization has been to retard that symmetrical development which our future mothers need. The keen competition of to-day and the new demands of social and industrial life are so important that the growing child must demand that he be physically prepared to meet the exigencies of a new era. Otherwise he will soon join the ranks of the great and constantly increasing army of the unfit and unemployable. A changing social attitude toward the problem of the child’s health is a natural consequence of this danger. The recent movement in favor of medical inspection of school children is a case in point. Society must care for the diseased and disabled. But much more important is the task of insisting upon repairing the palpable physical defects of our children so that the age of incapacity may be indefinitely postponed. The realization of such a program demands extension of public authority which may at present appear almost entirely unwarranted, yet the course of civilization is inexorably carrying us in this direction.

The legitimacy of the prohibition of child labor is in part based upon the physical injury which such work entails. The danger is accentuated by the double source from which it emanates — the pernicious influence of factory life upon the immature and undeveloped body, and the inability of the plastic and growing body to withstand the arduous task of continued manual labor. That the child must not be compelled or allowed to sacrifice his health for the mere pittance which he earns is now generally accepted ; although not more than seventy-five years ago reputable economists opposed interference by the state in behalf of the little ten-year-old child working underground in the coal mines of England ! The social obligation to childhood in this respect has developed with a fair degree of rapidity, and the near future will witness the emergence of this obligation into a definite right, which cannot be gainsaid nor overthrown.

c. The Right to Play.

All animals play. Play is likewise one of the fundamental instincts of the child. If there are any inherent rights of childhood, the right to play must be considered one of them. It carries with it immeasurable benefits, but the exact results still remain comparatively uncertain. It is unquestionable, however, that play promotes the physical and mental development of the child and that it is no mean factor in his social and moral elevation. In fact the social value of play is one of the incontrovertible reasons for the furtherance of the playground movement. The democratic impulses which well-regulated play fosters are an urgent need of the present era.

The ancient attitude toward play was that of toleration of the ebullient spirits of the growing boy. It was a rampant impulse which could not be checked, so parents submitted from necessity. The utilitarian function of play was undreamed of. The physical weakness of the child and his incapacity for concentrated thought and endeavor saved to him the enjoyment of play until his parents could use his services in some gainful occupation. Work was substituted for play as soon as the most limited degree of success offered some justification for such action. Play — the most enjoyable right of childhood — was unduly curtailed, and even at the present day its value is minimized by many who do not recognize its varied functions. Disregarding the different theories respecting the origin of play either in animals or in man, the present social value of play can not be denied. Play involves freedom from work and adequate leisure from the duties of the schoolroom. Nor can it be socially successful without sufficient space or playground facilities. Consequently a new duty of society has arisen — that of providing the child with ample field for the enjoyment of the opportunity to play.

d. The Right to Freedom fro7u Work.

Prominent among the rights of the child must be the right to abstain from the task of earning money either for his o^vn support or to increase the family income. Premature child labor is an absolute evil and is wholly without justification. Employment of children under a certain age in factories, mills, workshops, mercantile establishments, and in the street trades inflicts irremediable consequences. Among the principal results of such premature child labor are : the danger to health and physical development ; the handicap in the acquisition of a trade ; the mental retardation involved ; the real loss of opportunity for self-development ; the bar to future social and industrial efficiency; the incentive to criminality afforded, and the consequent moral degradation. The question of child labor is therefore fraught with deep meaning for future generations, and has become an important social problem.

The enlightened view of to-day refuses to regard the child as a mere commercial asset of the parent. On the contrary the relation of the two is exactly reversed. Until children reach a certain age it is absolutely necessary that they be supported by their parents, and society must enforce this obligation. The child as interest-bearing capital has no place in the enlightened civilization of our present industrial age. The right of society to restrict labor in factories and establishments of all kinds, while now generally recognized, does not include the right to restrain parents from using their children for gainful purposes. Until the community recognizes the social interests involved in such interference, it will be necessary for private agencies to use their influence in behalf of the child.

Freedom from work does not legitimize idleness. The idle child soon becomes the victim of its wayward impulses, or of incorrigible companions, and rapidl}^ degenerates. The evils of idleness are perhaps more serious than those of work, but this fact in no way justifies premature child labor. Childhood is a period of training when preparation for the duties of life is being made and while society must demand rigid requirements of the growing child, these requirements are entirely consistent with his general welfare. The adjustment of the individual in our industrial and social relations is so delicate that nothing can be overlooked to make that adjustment perfect. The more difficult the adaptation, the greater the need of pre\dous training and of preparation for the individual’s life work. Accordingly an adequate program for the development of the child must be adopted.

e. The Right to Education.

The educational advantages which society must grant to the child are at least threefold : literary and industrial training ; moral education ; and a knowledge of the elements of sex physiology. Without extensive development along each of these very important lines, many social evils will remain to retard the progress of mankind. In our complex social life of to-day, education has assumed startling importance. Comparatively illiterate men have until recently been able to acquire a considerable competence and even to amass a large fortune. This is no longer possible, and without training few men can hope to succeed. A large percentage of our recent immigrants are illiterate ; but illiteracy abroad, owing to relatively simple conditions, does not constitute the handicap that it does in the United States, If the injury resulting from ignorance were confined to the individual affected, the community would hardh^ be justified in interfering; but an entire group may suffer because of the ignorance of one of its members, and may therefore be forced to lower their standard of life. Compulsory education is a justifiable measure of coercing the negligent.

The training required must meet the direct occupational need of the child. Otherwise it is only a halfway measure, and society has not fully discharged its obligations. Machine production and the consequent extensive division of labor necessitate some preparation for trade life. The growing problem of unemplo3mient cannot be solved unless greater attention is paid to the untrained child. Low wages and shameful conditions of living are partly due to defective education. Society must furnish the individual with the initial equipment necessary for a life of usefulness and profit. The most important step in the direction of equalization of opportunity is training for industrial efficiency. But the other interests of the child should also receive due recognition, therefore literary training cannot be neglected.

Recent developments also demand a revision of the methods pursued in providing our youth with a moral education. The child is the unshaped marble out of which is hewn the virtuous man or the criminal. Shall no one superintend the sculptor’s work ? The results of improper and insufficient moral training are already too evident. By providing effective moral training for the child, society can prevent such criminality as is due to wrong methods of training ; and so much at least the present owes to the future.

A form of education which is now demanding increased attention is discreet education along the lines of sex physiology. So direful have been the consequences, especially to the female sex, of the absence of needed knowledge that advanced thinkers are justly demanding reform. The adolescent youth of to-day should be protected from the bitter results of an ignorance which depends upon the mistaken ideals of parents and upon the failure of the schools to appreciate the problem. The physical welfare of society, the happiness of the home, and the social emancipation of woman, depend in large part upon sufficient, rational, and timely instruction in this subject. It is a child problem, because the instruction cannot be delayed until the young mind is blackened by the evil teaching of the vicious.