Popular physiology : a familiar exposition of the structures, functions, and relations of the human system and their application to the preservation of health

Preface

The object of this volume, which is partly a compilation from the author’s larger works, is to present, with the usual Anatomical descriptions and illustrations, a more complete explanation and application of Physiology and Hygiene to the purposes of practical life, than is found in the numerous Physiologies for schools in the market. It is, therefore, intended to be specially adapted to the wants of families and schools.

Florence Hights, N. J.

November 1, 1875.

K. T. T.

Chapter I. Man’s Place In Nature

Geology and Genesis agree that the human being is the crowning work of the Almighty Architect; the Bible and science harmonize in placing man at the head of creation, as the production of Infinite Wisdom. Myriads of living organisms preceded him in the order of existence, and uncertain ages elapsed while the earth was being prepared for his habitation. Yet how transient his sojourn!

Like a drop of water to the vast ocean is the duration of his existence here, compared with the long cycles of ages required to form the solid ground from the incandescent ether. Surely, this life cannot be all there is of beings so endowed with ever-unfolding faculties, so constituted with endless hopes, and so blessed with immortal aspirations.

In the order of nature the greater always includes the less. Man embodies in his organization all the elements of all living things.

What is said of man’s place in nature ? What does man’s organization embody ?

Fig. 1.— Man.

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

and every power of every mind that has preceded him in the scale of being. He has all the vital properties of the plant, all the instincts of both plant and animal ; and, in addition thereto, moral and intellectual powers Deculiar to himself. He is not, therefore, a “higher animal.” He is not an animal at all, but a human being. And when we analyze his mental endowments, and compare and contrast them with the highest animals, we shall see in what his humanity consists.

Whether the human family has proceeded from a single pair; whether there have been distinct creations for the different races; whether there has been a pre-Adamite man; whether man has developed according to a universal type ; whether he originated in a special act of creative energy — these are problems we must yet leave with the scientists and theologians. Possibly we may eventually arrive at the demonstrated truth of some or all of these interesting questions. Meanwhile, our interest and our duty are plain enough. Whatever the truth may be it is best for us to understand it whenever we can. Let us, therefore, seek truth, honestly and sincerely, on these and on all other subjects. Let us make the best possible use of what we do know. Let us be charitable to others concerning all matters of opinion, and concede to them the same freedom of conscience and independence of judgment that we claim for ourselves. ‘ ‘ Do unto others as you would have others do unto you,” is a precept which, if universally recognized in practice, would change scientific controversies into earnest investigations, and substitute emulation in well-doing for religious disputations.

The doctrine of the “ descent of man,” which is just now the most prominent of the many debatable questions among the learned, would be divested of all its odium if Darwin and his disciples would change the phrase to “ ascent of man."1' This is what they really mean. And this is the philosophical truth. But in employing a misnomer, Darwinism has arrayed against the theory it has advanced an immense amount of honest pre^ judice and justifiable self-esteem. It is sufficiently humiliating to our reasonable pride to have descended from anything. It is quite bad enough to have degenerated from a higher human

What are the unsolved problems respecting the human race ? What is our duty con jcrning those problems ? What is the golden rule of action ?

MAN’S PLACE IN NATURE.

being; but to ask us to admit that we have descended from the lower animals, is requiring too much of our poor, yet proud human nature.

But Darwinism, rightly explained, has nothing degrading nor disagreeable ; nor is it at variance with the theory that human beings, in different parts of the world, have grown better or worse in different periods of history. Yet, as there are a hundred quarrels about words to one dispute about ideas, those who present new doctrines, or assume to be teachers, cannot be too explicit and unambiguous in technical terms.

Nothing can descend from anything lower than itself. It may descend towards it. But if the direction be from it, the movement must of necessity be upward. Whatever our origin may prove to be, our consolation and hope may be found in the fact that we are higher than the animals , though not higher animals ; and as there is nothing in the visible creation higher than ourselves, our position ought to be satisfactory.

In realizing the grand truth that man has ascended from the animal kingdom, no matter how, to a higher plane of existence, and with peculiar endowments and attributes, as the animal ascended from the preceding vegetal kingdom, we recognize the law of progress. And we get rid of the debasing idea that we are the offspring of the gorilla or the monkey, and that the quadruped or the reptile are our progenitors. The animals below us have nothing to do with our parentage, because they have preceded us. We might as well call the plants the par rents of the animals because they were first in the order of existence. It is development, not parentage, that we are to understand. It is ascent and not descent, that applies to humanity in its relation to the animal kingdom.

Every living organism, plant, animal, or man, is, in its processes of development and growth, but the unfolding of a primordial germ — a seed, or an egg. This fact presupposes a parental source, for ‘ ‘ spontaneous generation ” has not yet been proved. The seed, or egg, develops and grows according to fixed and invariable laws, requiring certain' conditions of air, tern perature and moisture, with certain elements which serve the purposes of food. If these conditions are imperfect, the devel-

What is Darwinianism ? Why has not man descended from the animals ? How is man higher than the animals ?

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

opment and growth will be abnormal. Excess or deft iency in any normal agency, or the introduction of non-usable or poisonous materials, disturb the “normal play of the functions;” and herein is the origin of disease. Vegetables feed on inorganio elements and atmospheric gases, which are deleterious to animals and man. Man and animals can only feed on organic matter, and require pure air and water, and food which contains no inorganic or chemical elements. If man breathes an impure atmosphere, drinks hard or stagnant water, and eats food mingled with impurities or inorganic elements of any kind, his health suffers accordingly, and his period of life is correspondingly abridged.

These considerations establish the principle that a life, to be healthy and enduring, must be in accordance with the laws of life. As our relations to all else in the universe are determinate and unalterable, these relations constituting the laws of our being, it follows that our best good, our greatest interest, and our highest happiness can only be found in harmony with, or obedience to, those laws. Every act in disobedience to organic law is a cause of suffering; it occasions disease and tends to premature death. Vitality can be expended, but it cannot be regained. How important, therefore, if we would live long in the land, or be useful and happy while we do live, that we understand the laws of the “fearfully and wonderfully made” machinery of life. The maxim that, “ intensive life cannot be extensive,” should be taught to every child in the primary school ; nor can the child too soon learn the important lesson that all stimulation, whether in the shape of food, drink, or medicine, is abnormal, disease-producing, and wasteful of the unreplenishable fund of life. To nourish the body without stimulating it, is the essential problem that physiologists and medical teachers have generally misunderstood or disregarded. Indeed many of them teach the very opposite — that stimulation is invigorating and necessary.

What is understood by development? State some of the conditions of growth. Wherein is the origin of disease ? On what do vegetables feed < What food do man and animals require ? State some things injurious to health In what consists our highest happiness ? State an important maxim of Ufa What is the effect of stimulation ?

CHAPTER H.

RACES OF MEN.*

The division of the human family into races or classes, each distinguished by certain striking peculiarities in the shape of the head, and in the structure, color, and arrangement of the skin, hair, and eyes, though strictly belonging to the science of ethnology, is a subject constantly becoming more interesting to the physiologist, from its intimate connection with the development of men, and the improvement and advancement of humanity.

A classification of mankind into Reading classes must, of course, involve distinctions purely arbitrary ; for the races may be distinguished into two or twenty, or any number between, as the marks of difference are more or less prominent.

The division of Blumenbach, who makes five principal races, is as useful and satisfactory as any other can be. These are named the Caucasian , Mongolian, Ethiopia, American, and Malay.

The Caucasian Race. — The Caucasian race is remarkable for the highest physiological development, personal symmetry and beauty, and intellectual attainments. The chief families of this race are the Caucasians proper , and the Germanic, Celtic, Arabian, Libyan, Nilotic , and Hindosianic branches.

* The articles on “ Races, Population, and Temperament,” are copied substantially from “ The Hydropathic Encyclopaedia,” a work recommended to all who desire to be well-informed in relation to the conditions of health, and the most successful methode of treating diseases.

What races of men are there? For what is the Caucasiat remarkable? tVhat are its chief families ?

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

In this race the shin is generally fair, the hair line and long, and of various colors, the skull large, rounded, and oval, and the forehead broad or prominent, large and elevated. The face ia relatively small and well-proportioned, the nose arched, the chin full, and the teeth vertical.

In this variety or race of men we find the farthest remove from the animal in brain, features and hair, with a superiority of intellectual and moral power, love of the arts, science and poetry. The progress of the human family seems to be made wholly through this race.

The Mongolian- Race. — The Mongolian variety includes the Mongol Tartars , Turks , and the Chinese and Polar tribes, which inhabit a vast extent of the earth’s surface, and constitute about half of the population of the globe. In physiological characteristics the Mongolians manifest considerable variety. The hair is black, long, and straight, the beard scanty, the skin commonly of an olive tint, the eyes black, the nose broad and short, the cheek-bones broad and flat, the skull oblong, but flattened, so as to give it a square appearance, and the forehead low.

In moral development this race is decidedly inferior; their intellectual powers are more imitative than inventive, and they possess but little strength and originality of mind.

Fig. 8.— Mongolia* Race. Fig. 4.— Ethiopio or Black Race.

The Ethiopio Race. — The Negroes of Central Africa, the Caffres and Hottentots of South Africa , the Natives of Australia ,

How is the Mongolian race distinguished ? What tribes and nations docs it include ? How is the Ethiopic or black race distinguished ? Who are its principal families ?

Races of meR.

and the Islanders of the Indian Archipelago and the Pacific Ocean , constitute the principal families of the Ethiopic or black race.

The black variety of mankind have complexions of jetty hue, black, woolly hair, eyes large, black, and prominent, nose broad and flat, thick lips, and wide mouth. The head is long from the ears back, and narrow ; the forehead is low, narrow, and retreat ing; the cheek-bones prominent, the jaws and teeth projecting, and the chin small. A long, protruding heel, and a flat shinbone, often distinguish this variety.

In disposition they are easy, indolent, cheerful, fond of sensual pleasure, and lovers of children, fond of gaudy show, but very improvident. In intellect the race varies much, but the majority of its tribes are low in this respect. There are, however, many instances in which individuals of this race have exhibited respectable talent.

The American Race. — The Indian tribes, or “ Red men,” who occupied originally nearly the whole of North and South America , south of the sixtieth degree of north latitude, constitute this variety.

The people of this race vary considerably in complexion, but are mostly of a reddish-brown color.

The hair is long, straight, and black, the beard deficient, the eyes black and deep set, brows prominent, forehead receding, prominent aquiline nose, high cheek-bones, small skull, rising high at the crown, and the back part flat, large mouth, hard, rough features, with fine, straight, symmetrical frames. They are averse to cultivation, and slow in acquiring knowledge, sedate, proud, restless, sly, revengeful, fond of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adventure, and are rapidly disappearing from the earth before the allconquering march of the Caucasian.

The Malay Race. — This variety of the human family inhabit ! ^ Borneo, Java , the Philippine Islands, New Zealand, the Polyne sian Islands, and a part of Madagascar.

How is the American race distinguished ? Where is it found? What countries does the Malay race inhabit ?

The Malays have tawny or dark brown skins, coarse, black hair, large mouth, broad, short noses, seeming as if broken at

the root, projecting upper jaws, and protruding teeth. The forehead is broad and low, the crown of the head high. The moral character of the Malays is of an inferior order. They are active, ingenious, and fond of maritime pursuits, and exhibit considerable intellectual capacity. Yet this race is constantly giving way before European civilization, and has already disappeared from New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land.

If the opinion is correct that the stronger race continually overgrows all the rest, and gradually obliterates them from the earth, the Caucasians are surely destined eventually to ‘ ‘ possess the land.” The history of the whole human race thus far indicates that such is the order of nature.

Origin of the Races. — Whether the various races of men have each had separate origins, or whether they are descendants of a common pair, modified by habits of life, climate, and external conditions, my limits will not permit me to discuss. Dr. Pritchard, after a labored investigation, came to the conclusion of the original unity of the races of the human family. Other authors have examined the subject apparently as critically, and settled down upon the opinion of the original diversity of the races.

Dr. Carpenter remarks: “It is a question of great scientific interest, as well as one that considerably affects the mode in which we treat the races that differ from our own, whether they are all of one species ; that is, descended from the same or from similar parentage, or whether they are to be regarded as distinct species, the first parents of the several races having had the same differences among themselves as those now exhibited by their descendants.”

No doubt the question of the natural inferiority of a race or tribe of the family of mankind really does affect the manner in

How is the Malay race distinguished ? What is the unsolved problem with ’■egard to the races ?

Fig. 6.— Malay Race.

RACES OF MEN.

which they are dealt with by their superiors, and materially modifies the state of their consciences in relation to the use or abuse of the weaker by the stronger; still this might makes no right, nor does this question furnish any reason why the more powerful race should maltreat the more feeble. I admit that the process of extermination is going on, according to the irreversible laws of nature, from the highest human being to the lowest animal. I believe that the stronger animals will exterminate the weaker, that man will eventually run out of existence the stronger animals, and that the superior tribe of the human family wall finally obliterate all traces of the existence of all the others; still I cannot see in the operations of this law any reason for oppressing, or even for not striving for the development of all men, yes, of all animals, according to their capacities and conditions. So long as inferior men do exist, our duty to them is plain enough. No one pretends that we, the stronger, have any right to rid the earth of their presence by violence, or in any other way except that “ordained by Heaven.” So far as Nature is concerned, she will see that her lawrs on the subject are faithfully executed, without our special interference. As far as the feebler races are capable of development and improvement, they are entitled to the same consideration as those who are more highly endowed in organization.

It is an encouraging indication of progress in the right direction that we have “ Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.” Here is an ample field for the exercise of the better emotions of the human heart. But there is a nobler field beyond, and it is to be hoped that organizations for preventing cruelty to human beings will not be long wanted ; for there is more cruelty inflicted on human beings every day, than on all the animals in existence in a year. Besides, the susceptibilities of animals to pain is insignificant compared with that of human beings. The higher the organization the greater is its capacity for happiness or misery.

What is the tendency of strong and weak races? What is our duty t« Inferior races ?

Chapter III Temperaments

By temperament is understood a disproportionate development of some organ, structure or system of organs. The ancients distinguished four temperaments, the sanguine, phlegmatic, lymphatic and melancholic, based on the predominance of the four supposed humors, blood, lymph, yellow bile and black bile, each of these being caused by the prevalence of some one of the four supposed elements — fire, air, water and earth. The modern classification usually adopted by medical writers is into po

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Fio. 7.— Nervous Temperament.

McDonald Clark.

Pig. 8.— Sanguine Temperament.

Thomas Moore.

nervous , sanguine , bilious and lymphatic, as the cei'ebral, the circulating, the muscular or the digestive system seem to predominate. The nervous temperament (Fig. 7) when well-marked, is mani-

What do you understand by temperament ? What was the ancient doctrine of temperaments ? What is the modern classification ? What is the latest division ? What is the nervous temperament ?

What is the sanguine temperament ? Bilious ? Lymphatic ? What is the sanguine temperament sometimes called ? What is the active temperament P

Tested by a large bead, delicate or sharp features, small bones and muscles, and angular points of the body.

The sanguine temperament, sometimes called the cli tei icil (Fig. 8), is known by broad shoulders, florid complexion, blue eyes, light, sandy or brown hair, and a general smoothness of form and features.

The bilious temperament (Fig. 9) is denoted by large, full muscles, swelling veins, dark hair and eyes, and dark, brown or yellow complexion.

Pig. 9.— Bilious Temperament. Fig. 10.— Ltmphatio Temperament.

D. C. McCollum. Hon. Wm. Maule, M. P., of Panmure.

The lymphatic temperament (Fig. 10) is denoted by a general fullness or rotundity of the body, dull, pale appearance of the skin, and a disposition inclining to quietude if not indolence.

The nervous and sanguine are the active , while the bilious and lymphatic are the torpid temperaments, hence, when the cerebral and circulating systems are both predominant over the muscular and digestive systems, the person has the organization adapted to the highest manifestations of mental activity and sensibility; while, if both the muscular and digestive organs predominate the character will be sluggish, the body indolent and the mind dull.

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY-.

But a more convenient, more practical and equally scientific arrangement of temperament — a division now adopted by most phrenologists — is into the motive , vital and mental. The motive temperament means a predominance of the moving machinery — the muscles and bones; the vital is due to predominance of the digestive apparatus, and the mental to the predominance of the brain organ. The motive temperament is favorable to strong

action, the vital to good nutrition, and the mental to intense thinking and feeling.

In treating of temperaments most authors confuse the subject by inaccuracy of language. They are in the habit of assigning two or more temperaments to the same individual; and they speak of a combination of temperaments, and of a harmonious or balanced temperament. Such language is not scientifically correct. No person can have more than one temperament, for the reason that the most prominently-developed organ, structure or apparatus constitutes the temperament. When, therefore, authors mention two or more temperaments, or a combination of temperaments, we are only to understand the relative development of the various organs or structures. A ‘ ‘ balanced temperament ” is no temperament at all. because there is no disproportionate development. The proper phrase in this case is balanced structural development, or harmonious organization. If a person is marked on a phrenological chart as having the nervous temperament 6, the sanguine 5, the bilious 4 and the lymphatic 3, the meaning is that

What Is the motive temperament? Vital? Mental? To what are those temperaments respectively conducive ? Can an individual have several temperaments ?

TEMPERAMENTS.

he is of the nervous temperament, because the brain preponder ates. and that the circulating, the muscular and osseous an <3 digestive systems are developed in the ratio indicated by th« figures.

The Motive Temperament. — This is well represented in the cuts of Zadoc Pratt and the mother of Rev. John Wesley (Figs. 11 and 12).

In the motive temperament the bones are large and broad, and the muscles full, dense and strong.

The person is said to be sinewy. The figure is usually tall, the neck and face long, cheek bones high, shoulders broad and the chest full. The complexion varies, but the hair is strong and abundant. The features are strongly marked, and in extreme cases the expression is harsh and rigid, even when the disposition is kind and philanthropic. The whole

Fig. 12.— Mrs. Wesley.

organization seems especially constituted for bodily activity ; and persons of this temperament are inclined to be industrious, persistent in their vocations, constant in friendship, energetic and ambitious.

The Vital Temperament. — There are few better illustrations of the vital temperament than Luther, the great reformer,

What are the peculiarities of the motive temperament? What characters represent it ? What tissues represent the temperaments respectively ?

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

and Miss Braddon, the sensation novelist (Figs. 13 ant1 14).

The vital temperament marked by breadth and roundness of body. The chest is large, abdomen full, limbs plump, and hands and feet relatively small. The neck is short and thick, the features smooth, and the expression generally mirthful. Persons who have this temperament large are disposed to be active, both bodily and mentally; they love excitement,

tinuous labor. In disposition they are genial and amiable, but

inclined to be impulsive and versatile.

The Mental Temperament. — As the brain is the organ of mind, its disproportionate development must of course constitute the mental temperament. It is well illustrated in Poe, the poet, and Ritchie, the actress (Figs. 15 and 17).

In the mental temperament the frame is

slight, and the head relatively large ; the

What are the peculiarities of the vital temperament? Of the mental ? What characters represent each ? What temperament is most conducive to muscular activity ? What to mental power ? What to good digestion?

forehead is high, face inclined to paleness, eyes light and expressive, features delicate, neck slender, chest small or only

moderately full, and hair soft and fine. The thoughts are rapid, senses acute, imagination lively, and the moral emotions keen.

Fig. 17.— Sir John Franklin.

Fig. 18.— Madame De Stael.

Balanced Temperament. — Very few persons better illustrate what is called the harmonious temperament, and what is prop-

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

erly termed the equable development, than Franklin the navi gator, and De Stael the philosopher (Figs. 17 and 18).

It is difficult to indicate the character of a harmonious devel

Fig. 19.— Divines.

opment. It is simply normal. Scientifically speaking, it haa all character or no character. It has the best adjustment of all the parts, and under normal influences, is the best possible organization. But, under temptation or adverse circumstances,

What is balanced temperament ? What characters represent it ? Why is a harmonious structural development inconsistent with temperament ?

TEMPERAMENTS.

it is as liable to err in one direction as another. Hence, the future of all persons of this temperament depends on education, and suggests the importance of that wisest of all the sayings of wise men, “ Train up a child in the way it should go.”

In the preceding group of the heads of ten distinguished divines, some of whom are still living, the reader will readily recognize, and may profitably study each of the temperaments — motive, vital and mental — and their so-called combinations.

Much importance has been justly attached to the subject of temperament, both as respects the training of children and the education of adults, and the selection of companions for life in the matrimonial relation. Kespecting physical and mental training there is much error, not only in our system of commonschool education, but also in vocations and habits of life. Children who are weak in body often take precociously to books, and the early indications of mental talent are often treated with a forcing or hot-house culture, to the utter ruin of the bodily constitution ; while children who manifest vigorms muscles are put to the exercises or business pursuits which aggravate the disproportion between mind and body, and produce an adult with a strong body and imbecile mind. The proper application of the doctrine of temperaments reverses tills custom. The feebler parts of the organism should be most assiduously trained. A harmonious organization should always be aimed at in the rearing of children and education of youth. There will always be unbalanced conditions enough ; and when the child has attained the vigorous development of full- rounded manhood or womanhood, there will be time enough to cultivate special talents. In this manner only can genius be placed on an enduring basis, and extraordinary original capacity be rendered safe to its possessor and most useful to mankind.

The temperament of a child should be carefully studied and judiciously managed from the moment it begins to walk and talk. If the temperament be decidedly motive, its mind should be frequently exercised with pictures and such toys as best serve the purpose of object-teaching; leaving it to exercise its muscular system at will in any proper plays or amusements.

How should children be trained with regard to temperament ? What organs and structures need most exercise ?

POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY.

If the temperament be strongly vital, care should be taken that the mental and muscular exercises are properly balanced.

But the tendency of civilization is to develop the nervous temperament at the expense of the vital, producing a race of educated imbeciles , or knowing minds in unsound bodies — theoretically intelligent, but practically useless. Children who mani fest a largely mental temperament should have little to do with primary schools as they are usually conducted. They should

Figs. 20 and 21.— Well-Balanced Okganization.

not go to such schools at all until seven or eight years of age, and then not be confined to them more than one or at most two hours. Such children — girls as well as boys — should be eneour-

What children should have little to do with books ? What habits are cor rectivo of an excessive nervous temperament ?

TEMPERAMENTS.

aged to work or play much out of doors, breathing the pure air and developing the vital organs, while book-education should be the incident, not the habit; the avocatioD, not the vocation. Especially should they be guarded against the sensational literature and trashy novels that deluge the land, perverting the intellect and corrupting the morals, as destructively to the whole mental nature as are the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the vital organism.

In the selection of conjugial partners, some authors advocate the rule of similarity, and others that of diversity of temperaments ; and it has been most absurdly pretended by some writers on human temperaments, that two perfectly harmonious temperaments are constitutionally incompatible, indeed, “physiologically incestuous.” The teachings of nature, however, as manifested in the history of all the races of men, and as illustrated throughout the whole animal kingdom, are not difficult to understand.

Vital laws are the same everywhere. Most farmers very well know that, if he would have the most desirable crops he must plant the best quality of seed. And if he raises animals to take the premiums at the fairs, he selects the best stock, and attends carefully to all hygienic conditions during the period of growth. Food, air, water, temperature, exercise, and shelter are sedulously adapted to their needs. And the result is, animals of “pure blood,” “high type,” symmetrical, beautiful, perfect. So it would be with human beings were the laws of life and the conditions of health as carefully applied to them.