East of the Jordan : a record of travel and observation in the countries of Moab, Gilead and Bashan

Front matter

THE GIFT OF

7 /C “THE GIFT OF (fJL-

GEORGE W. DESHLER,

Introduction

close in upon Jerusalem. In the time of the Antonines the country was full of cities, with their temples, theatres, and baths. In the fifth century Christian, churches, ivell organized, were numerous and flourishing.

The Biblical sites, to be sure, are not very many, as compared with the multitude on the western side of the river. But they are of peculiar interest. The five cities of the plain were trans-Jordanic. Penned, Mahanaim, and Succoth are suggestive names. Nebo and Pisgah are like household words. Bethabara, wherever it was beyond the Jordan , witnessed the descent of the Spirit upon the Founder of our religion. And somewhere in the wilderness beyond occurred what Milton calls the “ great duel, not of arms.”

This whole section of country, though nominally a part of the Turkish Empire, is now, and has been for centuries, in the hands of Bedaween. Travelling there is always difficult, if not always actually dangerous. Till quite recently very little was known either about the country, its ruins, or its inhabitants. The work of exploration, however, is now fairly begun. And the author of the book here offered to the public has done conspicuous and excellent service in the field. lie was no ordinary traveller. As Archaeologist of the American Palestine Exploration Society, his opportunities tvere exceptionally good, and these opportunities were well improved. lie showed admirable tact, and had rare good luck, in dealing with the Bedaween, whose habits he studied caref ully, and among whom he dwelt as securely as in Andover. He has the credit of several important identifications. His “ Topographical Notes

INTRODUCTION.

vii

on Eastern Palestine ” in which he gives , in a concise and scholarly manner , the results of the explorations already made , withheld from publication for the present for reasons which need not be detailed , will appear in due time.

The present volume has assumed a popular form. Personal incidents enliven the narrative. The illustrations are fresh and original, many of them from the author's own drawings. The book con tains a large amount of matter wholly new. The author teas caref ul and patient in his investigations, and now tells the story of his life beyond the Jordan in a manner equally entertaining and instructive.

BOSWELL D. HITCHCOCK.

Union Theological Seminary, New York, August 15, 1881.

Preface

On the 20th of October, 1874, I teas appointed the archaeologist of the American Palestine Exploration Society, and sailed from Hew York on the 19 th of Jane , 1875, arriving at Beirut, our head-quarters in Syria, on Monday , the 9 th day of August. During 1875-77 I made four different expeditions, of which the journal of but two is given at length in the following pages. On Thursday, December 23, 1875, I was placed in charge of the exploration work, which I carried on until the summer of 1877, when I returned to America. I have since been retained by the Society to write reports and to assist Mr. Meyer in the preparation of our maps. During the two years that I teas in the field, I labored under the immediate advice and direction of the Advisory Committee in Beiriit. This committee is composed of gentlemen who are familiar with many parts of Syria and Palestine, and who, in every way, are deserving of the highest respect and honor, and my relations xvith them were always exceedingly pleasant.

Special mention should here be made of Professor Roswell D. Hitchcock, D. D., of Union Theological Seminary, Hew York, who, as president of the Exploration Society, has labored indefatigably for its interests, and also of Mr. Rudolph Meyer, the Society's faithful engineer, by whose

X

PREFACE.

skilful hand its map has been prepared. I desire to acknowledge my obligation to J. Henry Thayer , Professor in the Theological Seminary , Andover , Mass., and Timothy Otis Paine, Professor in the New Church Theological Seminary, Boston, Mass., likewise to Charles L. Merriam and George W. Stearns, for valuable services rendered while carrying this work through the press. It may not, be out of /dare for me to add, that of the large amount of archeological and other material in my possession connected until Palestine, it has been found possible to introduce only a limited portion in the present volume.

SELAU MERRILL.

Andover, Mass., May 2, 1881.

Contents

CHAPTER

PAGE

I

l

n.

Among the Cities op Bashan .

• m.

u u u u

• • rv.

ll u u u

.

V.

Hauran Architecture ....

.

VL

Um el Jemal, the Mother op the Camel

.

vn.

• vin.

.

IX.

On the Way to the Field .

.

X.

Around the Sea of Galilee

XL

El Hamma, an Ancient Watering-Place

• xn.

Gadara

.

xm.

Aphek, the Grave op a Syrian Army (I.

Kings

•

XIV.

.

XV.

U U

.

XVI.

a a

• xvn.

Lower Jordan Valley. — The Shittim Plain xvm.

u (( u u «

.

xrx.

.

XX.

On the Upper Zerka, or Jabbok

e

XXI.

Gilead • • <> • • » o

0 9

XXII.

The Decapolis ......

CONTENTS.

xii

XXm. Return 303

XXIV. On the March 313

XXV. Golan and Ashteroth Karnaim .... 320

XXVI. Pilgrim Caravans 333

XXVII. An Underground City 348

XXVm. The Watch-Tower op Gilead . . . . 359

XXIX. On the Lower Zerka, or Jabbok . . . 372

XXX. Exploration op the Jabboic .... 381

XXXI. A War-Cloud 404

XXXn. Condition op the Country . . . . 411

XXXIH. A Surprise Party 419

XXXIV. Mahanaim and Pella ...... 425

XXXV. Our Lord at Capernaum and in Perea . . 448

XXXVI. Arab Life in the Desert 4G7

XXXIX. Conclusion 516

Index • . 533

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Where not otherwise stated, the illustrations are from photographs taken by the American Palestine Exploration Society, or from original drawings.

PAGE

Amman on the Upper Jabbok. Looking up the Valley to

the South-west Frontispiece

The Lava Bed in the Lejah . . From Wetzstein . 12

Tell Shaihan, in the Lejah . . From Burton and Drake 15

Temple at Mitsmieh 17

Interior op Temple at Musmieh . From De Vogiie . 18

Peripteral Temple at Kunawat 24

Plan of the Church at Edhr’a . From De Vogiie . . 29

Cyclopean Structure in the Lejah, near Kirateh . 31

Temple at Suleim 32

Ancient Castle at Kunawat. Roman Round-Tower in the

Distance 30

Temple at Kunawat. Antique Head at the Right . . 38

Heads op Baal and Astarte . From “Unexplored Syria” 40

Colossal Head at Kunawat 41

Bullock’s Head on an Altar op Basalt, prom Kunawat . 42

Specimens of Ornamental Work in the >

Hauran Architecture. From Si’a Specimens of Hauran Architecture.

| From De Vogiid

From Si’a Temple at ’AtIl

^ From De Vogiid .

xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGK

Ancient Sculpture found at ’Ary. Possibly a Representation of the Deity Dusares, or Bacchus . . .49

Lions and Palm-Tree. From the Castle at Salchad . 51

Castle at Salchad. In the Mouth of an Extinct Crater 52 Cathedral at Bozrah .... From De Yogii6 . . 54

Mosque and Reservoir at Bozrah . . To face page 55

Anteroom Connected with the Theatre at Bozrah . 56

Remains of two Large Public Buildings, perhaps Temples, at Bozrah 57

Windows from the Hauran . . From . De Vogiie . 64

Windows and Doors from the Hauran From De Vogue . . 65

Stone House in the Hauran . . From Dc Vogiie . 67

Windows from the Hauran . . From De Vogu6 . . 69

Church and Houses at Um el Jemal 82

Es Salt To face page 90

Hyrcanus’s Palace at ’Arak el Em?r 107

Assyrian Sculpture in the Rook. Near Tyre . . .118

Section of Rock, showing Assyrian Sculpture. Near Tyre 119

Syrian Horseshoe and Nails 135

Seats in the Bath at El Hamm a 150

Twenty-three Varieties of Masons’ Marks, from the Stones in the Roman Bath at El Hamma, or Hot

Springs of Gadara 151

Roman Road at Gadara 154

Door of a Tomb at Gadara 155

Candlestick (?) on a Lintel at FIk 162

Castle of Kaukab el Hauwa, as seen Across the Jordan

Valley from the Hills South of Gadara . . . 174

Natural Bridge and Hot Spring North of Pella . . 183

Mill-Stone in a Quarry in Jebel ’Ajl?>n . . . .190

Ancient Mill-Stone, Shittim Plain 231

Tombstone of a Bedawin Sheikh. From near Hasban . 240 ’AyCn MOsa, or Fountains’of Moses From Due dc Luynes 242

Ruins on Jebel MCsa . . . From Due dc Luynes 246

Plan of the M’Shita Ruin . . . From Dr. Tristram 256

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xv

PAGE

M’Shita. Interior View . . . . . , . .261

Tower at M’Shita 263

Plan of a Temple at Amman . . . . . . .264

Theatre at Gerash 272

Triumphal Arch at Gerash . . From Due de Luynes . 281

Temple of the Sun at Gerash 283

Niche in the Remains of an Elegant Edifice on the Long

Street at Gerash 285

Temple at Gerash. Near the South Gate . . . 288

Jar from Irbid 295

Plan of Mahneh 355

Plan of Tell Deir ’Alla and Tul^l edh Diiahab, or Suc-

COTH AND PENUEL 390

Large Theatre at Amman, and Small Theatre at the

Left 399

Ruin at Amman, Showing Holes in the Interior of the

Ruined Bridge on the Jordan, near

the Mouth of the Jabbok . 5 ’ To face page 423

Bedawin Skull, from Khurbet Sar, the Old Testament

Jazer 486

Inscribed Stones from Ancient Tombs at Sidon . 520, 521

Fragment of Ancient Lead Sarcophagus . . . .522

A Phoenician Idol, from Beirut. Front View . . 523

Stone Projectile. From Banias 524

Figures on an Ancient Altar found at Jebail . . . 525

CHAPTER I. Preparations

Arrival in Beirut. City stricken with cholera. Difficulty in finding quarters. Places revisited. Rapid growth. Importance given to schools and education. Wide influence of the Mission press. Commercial prospects. American petroleum trade. Imports and exports. Sponge fisheries. Historical notices of Beirut. The Christian stronghold in Syria. Advisory Committee of the American Palestine Exploration Society. Camp pitched at ’Abeih. Kindness of the American residents. Party made up. Route marked out.

UR party, consisting of four Americans, has arrived on the Syrian coast at an unfortunate time, so far as undertaking any important work is concerned. The country is visited now by the dread disease of cholera, which lias more terrors for the Oriental mind than the plague, famine or Avar. Forty thousand people have fled from this city alone, and I have walked about these streets for two miles without seeing man, woman or child, an open door, or any sign of life except a few starving dogs — and these ought rather to be classed among the signs of misery and death. Still, the epidemic does not seem to be a very fatal one; for, if I am correctly informed by physicians here, the highest number of

BeirCt, Syria, Monday, August 23, 1875.

EAST OF THE JOED AX.

deaths a day is only thirteen. This, it must be remembered, however, is among the few people that have been obliged to stay at home, so that no one can tell what the condition of things might have been had all the inhabitants remained.

The ports about the Mediterranean are guarded now by a strict quarantine, and we were detained at Alexandria for twelve days before we could get a steamer to Beirfit.

We left Liverpool on Monday, July 12, 1875, in the steamer Magdala, Captain Greig, staying a part of a day at Gibraltar and an entire day and two nights at Malta, and arrived at Alexandria on Monday, July 2G. We sailed thence on Saturday, August 7, and reached Beirut on Monday, August 9.

We found that the hotels were closed, and likewise the private houses and most of the stores and shops. Americans and other foreign residents were in the mountains, the irrepressible dragoman had for once ceased to annoy the new-comer, and it appeared for a time as though we should not be able to get a tent pitched or find a roof beneath which we could obtain shelter. Fortunately for us, our Consul, Hon. J. T. Edgar, was at his post, and through his influence one of the hotels was opened, where we spent the remainder of that day and the following night. Meantime Rev. George E. Post, M. I)., one of the Advisory- Committee of the Palestine Exploration Society, arrived from the mountains, and gave us our present quarters in the Syrian Protestant College. This commodious building is on a bluff one mile or more west of the city, and commands a fine view of the Mediterranean on one side and of the town and the Lebanon Mountains on the other. We enjoy here whatever fresh breezes the sea affords, and are probably as

PREPARATIONS.

exempt from the cholera as we should be in one of the mountain villages.

Earty in the year 1869, after an extended tour in Egypt and the Holy Land, I spent six or eight days in Beirut, and paid considerable attention to its history and places of interest. Some of these points I have revisited during the past two weeks, and, although the city has now so deserted an appearance, I see on every hand the signs of growth and of an increased degree of prosperity. The suburbs appear to be better cultivated than formerly, and in some sections of the town many fine houses have been built. The missions under the care of the different Protestant nationalities have a firmer hold on the attention of the people, and they have been aggressive on the side of popular education to a degree that woidd have been surprising even under far more favorable circumstances. The substantial edifice in which we have found a temporary home is but one of the evidences that the native population of Syria are heartily desirous of improvement, while the adjoining medical college is bringing about a great transformation in the minds of the people with regard to a noble science which has hitherto ranked, among them, only with the magic arts.

One of the most hopeful features connected with the work of education in Syria is the progress that has been made among the native women. It is a noticeable but interesting fact that many Moslem parents have so far overcome their prejudices as to send their girls to Christian schools. In the present condition of affairs, it is inevitable that the educational work among women should be for the most part elementary in character. But, besides excellent schools of that grade, there are others, like the American Young Ladies’ Seminary (to mention but one), where higher advantages are afforded, and the increasing num-

EAST OF THE JORDAN.

her of trained young’ women who graduate every year from these advanced schools is an evidence that very many have got beyond the rudiments of learning and are anxious to become teachers, or to fit themselves for those positions of usefulness which only educated and intelligent women can fill with success.

Further, the influence of the Mission press here is already of incalculable extent, and it is increasing year by year. The buildings themselves are small; but in all the East civilization has not a stronger ally than this humble establishment on the sea-shore at the foot of Lebanon. Eight millions or ten millions of pages, printed in the Arabic, language, are sent forth from this press every year, supplying the Arabic-speaking people of Western Asia and Egypt with a pure and Christian literature, and providing for them, by means of translations from European languages, the best educational and scientific works which their progress in knowledge demands. Ten centuries before Christ this place was the seat of a depraved idolatrous worship. Five centuries after Christ it had the finest law school in the Roman empire; and nineteen centuries after Christ it has already become the strong centre of Christianity and education — the forces which, I believe, are destined to accomplish the moral and political and, consequently, the physical redemption of this longoppressed but glorious land.

This city cannot be compared with Alexandria as respects circumstances favorable for material growth At the same time Beirut enjoys unusual advantages in its climate, beautiful situation and scenery, in the fertility of its soil, and its abundant supply of water. Unlike any city of Egypt, this has a range of mountains so near as to furnish a retreat for the inhabitants during the long Syrian summer. When people here are exhausted

PREPARATIONS.

with the tropical heat they can, in three or four hours on horseback, reach the higher parts of Lebanon, where the water is cool and the air fresh and bracing. Jebel Sunnin, which is in sight from this college, and is one of the highest peaks of the range, preserves, in its deep ravines and gorges, snow and ice during the entire year, and from this source the inhabitants of Beirut are supplied with these luxuries at a very reasonable cost.

Although not equal to Alexandria, Beirut is the most important commercial port on the Syrian coast, and among the facts of special interest which I have learned is, that most of the vessels which bear the United States flag, arriving here, come with cargoes of petroleum. Foreigners shorten this word into “ petrole,” while the natives call the article “gas.” It began to be imported directly about 1867, and during that year 50,000 gallons arrived at Beirut. But the trade has so increased that last year nearly 1,000,000 gallons arrived in American ships alone. This oil is not fill consumed in Beirut, but is distributed over the whole of Syria. Small native craft take it to other ports along the coast, and it is carried inland to Damascus and the other towns throughout the central and northern portions of the country, and finds its way even to the cities and villages along the Euphrates.

Among the other articles of import here I may specify, without going too deeply into details, hardware, crockery and glass ware, furniture, sewing-machines, boots, shoes, and leather, wines and spirits, drugs and medicines, rice, coffee, sugar and flour, stationery, fancy goods, woollen and silk goods, cotton goods and prints, matches, cigars, marble, and lumber, including boards, planks, and heavy beams. The want of native timber is a great drawback to the prosperity of this country, and that which is imported is, of course, very expensive. The fancy goods

EAST OF THE JORDAN.

come chiefly from Austria and Germany ; hardware, boots, and shoes, from England and France. Within a few years past, Russia has sent considerable flour to Syria. In cotton goods and prints, the last of which must be of the most gaudy and flaming colors to please the Oriental taste, Manchester has taken the lead of all other cities in supplying this market; but the business being known to be profitable was soon overdone, and there is now a depression. Great quantities of rice arc brought to this country, for the natives are very fond of it. Sugar comes principally from Egypt and France. But few cigars are imported, for the natives do not use them, partly because they are too expensive, and partly because they are too strong, and contain more tobacco than a Syrian or an Arab wishes to smoke at once. Furthermore, foreigners soon give up the practice of smoking cigars, and adopt instead the cigarette, which, together with the nargileJi for leisure hours, takes the place of the pipes and cigars of the Western world.

Considerable produce of various kinds is also shipped yearly from this port, and among the articles are dried apricots, raisins and nuts, wine and olive oil, wheat, barley, sesame and beans, madder root and other substances that are used for dyeing materials, rags, skins, wool, bitumen, sponges, raw cotton, silk, and tobacco. Formerly a great many horses, cattle, and sheep were shipped from Syria to Egypt and elsewhere, and from this source the country derived a very important income. But for some reason strict orders have been issued from Constantinople prohibiting the export of cattle and horses, and this business has nearly ceased. The bitumen comes from the mines at Hasbeiya, near the most northern source of the Jordan. It is found in a very pure state, is worth about one hundred and thirty dollars a ton, and

PREPARATIONS.

is used principally by the Continental varnish makers. A large part of the silk is shipped to France; the value of that sent in 1872 amounting to £500,000. Since the Suez Canal was opened, the silk industry of Syria has been almost ruined. The raw article can be produced much cheaper in the far East, where also the crop is more certain, and the present means of rapid transit enable the growers and shippers there to supply quickly the European market, so that the producers here find it impossible to hold their own with such odds against them, and many have in consequence been driven to poverty and real distress.

One of the important industries of Syria is the sponge fisheries, of which the average value of the yearly production is from $100,000 to $125,000. In 1872, nearly $00,000 worth were shipped from Beirut alone. At present not a great deal of cotton is produced, and the Government has made tobacco a contraband article, so that the production of this staple has well-nigh ceased. In ancient Hebrew times, cotton was raised and manufactured in Syria, and in the Middle Ages the cotton fabrics of this country were widely celebrated; but its production has fallen almost to nothing in recent years, chiefly owing to the fact that the Government neither aids nor encourages any industry that can possibly be made a source of wealth to the impoverished and wretched inhabitants.

Among the historical notices of this city, connected chiefly with its commercial character, we find Pliny (died A. D. 79) praising the sweetness of the Beirut grapes, and declaring that its native wine was, with that of Tripoli, Tyre, and Byblos, the best in Syria. Ammianus Marcellinus (fourth century) describes Beirut, Tyre, and Sidon as the most important cities of Phoenicia. Procopius (died A. D. 565) speaks of its extensive silk trade and manufactories

EAST OF THE JORDAN.

whence the whole Roman empire was supplied with the most elegant and costly fabrics of this land. In the time of Justinian its only rival in this trade was the city of Tyre. Agathios (sixth century) speaks of Beirfit, at the period previous to the great earthquake in A. D. 529, as one of the most beautiful cities of the Phoenician coast, adorned with elegant palaces and presenting the appearance* of a Roman city of wealth and splendor. Amid the luxury and the powerful heathen influence which prevailed here at that time, Christianity also had a foothold, and its teachers and churches existed side by side with Roman schools and Pagan temples. It was hero that Constantine, in 325, issued his law prohibiting gladiatorial combats.

We have had a number of interviews with the Advisory Committee, composed, besides Dr. Post already mentioned, of Rev. Wm. M. Thomson, D. D., Rev. Henry H. Jessup, I). I)., and C. V. A. Van Dyck, M. D., D. D., and, with their cooperation, our preparations are nearly complete. It is proposed by the committee that we go on Wednesday, August 25, to ’Abeih, a village in the mountains, five hours south of Beirut, pitch our camp there, and see if everything is in order.

’Abeiii, Syria, Wednesday, September 1, 1875.

As every member of the party has been more or less indisposed, our departure for our field of labor has been delayed beyond our expectations. But all our forces are now on hand and in readiness, and we propose to start in the morning.

Since coming here I have spent parts of two days in planning with Dr. Thomson about our route. We have decided to camp to-morrow night at Kefr Nebrakh ; go thence to Jubb Jenin, and on our way take photographs

PREPARATIONS.

of the recently discovered grove of cedars above Bariik ; on Saturday to go past and photograph the temple at Thelthatha, and spend Sunday at Rasheiya ; to visit Rukhleli and some of the temples about the base of Mount Hermon ; also the summit of Hermon, and go thence by way of Mejdel esh Shems to Banias. Thence visit and photograph the castle, the grove of Hazuri, the lake Phiala, and go on by way of S’as’a to the north end of the Lejah. The country east of the Jordan which it is proposed to survey embraces 6000 square miles, being about the size of that contemplated in the English survey of Western Palestine. The region assigned to us is a vast table-land, averaging about 2500 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, on which there is but a single group of hills, called the Hauran Mountains. It is said to be full of ruins which are of great historical interest.

Besides the four members of the exploring party, Prof. E. R. Lewis, M. D., of the Syrian Protestant College in Beirut, and Mr. Henry L. Van Dyck, are to accompany us; we have also Mr. T. R. Dumas, of Beirut, as our photographer. We have twenty-three baggage animals and nine horses, eight muleteers, six servants, — including two cooks and a table boy, — and two native assistants and interpreters from the college just mentioned.

The Americans whom we have met since coming here have received us most cordially and rendered us all the assistance in their power. To some of them I am personally indebted for many kind attentions. They all express themselves as deeply interested in the work which the American Society has undertaken, but seem to regret that we should be sent out to our field while the heat is so oppressive.

CHAPTER II. Among the Cities op B asiian

Route followed. S’as’a. Beautiful camping-ground. Extinct crater. The Lejah, the ancient “Argob.” Vast bed of lava. Freaks of the cooling lava. Great caves, the lurking-places of robbers. Testimony of Strabo and Josephus. The Hauran Mountains, once a region full of active volcanoes. Strange appearance of the Lejah. Musmieh, the Phaena of the Greeks. Fine temple. Inscriptions. Palaco of the Governor. Public hotel. Camp of the Sixteenth Legion. Our camping-place. Burak. An episcopal city. Old foundations. Aqueduct and water supply.

E followed pretty nearly the plan of our route, which, as I have mentioned, was arranged with Dr. Thomson, and reached the border of the Traclionitis on Wednesday, September 15, 1875. S’as’a appears to occupy the mouth of an extinct crater, and the khan belonging to the town is of great size. Our camp was on the bank of the Jennani, or rather between two branches of that stream, where was a patch of inviting greensward, an unusual sight in this parched land. A flock of fine-looking geese shared with us one end of this small island, but they did not disturb our slumbers.

In order to confine my material within the compass of a single volume, I must omit for the most part my journal

AMONG THE CITIES OF BA SHAN.

of our work and travels for two months from the date last mentioned, and select only such matters as appear to me to be of chief importance, and which I trust will prove of general interest.

There are many points about the Lejah from which one can overlook its entire surface. The views from the roof of the temple at Musmieh, and from the buildings at Kliubab some distance to the south, are particularly fine. It would be difficult to mention a spot in civilized lands which could be compared to this ancient region in regard to its wild and savage aspect. When one reads of “ Argob, ” or the “ region of Argob,” in Dent, iii., and elsewhere, the name and phrase have little significance ; but when one is actually on the ground, and, from the walls of the temple at Musmieh, looks south-east over the very district referred to, or, from some point in Jebel Hauran, looks north over this great sea of lava, one realizes that the Hebrew words are expressive to a degree that one had never before imagined.

The lava bed proper embraces about three hundred and fifty square miles, and its average height above the surrounding plain is perhaps twenty feet. The bed in its outline or edge is far from being regular, but sends out at a multitude of points black promontories of rock into the surrounding plain. Through this rugged shore there are a few openings into the interior, but for the most part it is impassable, and roads had to be excavated to the towns situated within it. Argob, or the Lejah itself, is a great plain, and one of the strangest on earth. The surface is black, and has the appearance of the sea when it is in motion beneath a dark, cloudy sky, and when the waves are of good size but without any white crests of foam. But this sea of lava is motionless, and its great waves are

EAST OF THE JORDAN.

petrified. In the process of cooling, the lava cracked, and in some eases the layers of great basalt blocks look as if they had been prepared and placed where they are by

The Lava Bed in the Lejah. [From Wetzstoin.]

artificial means. In other cases, the hillocks have split lengthwise, or sometimes into several portions, and thus seams have been opened, forming great fissures and chasms which cannot be crossed.