Handbook of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

Front matter

W. SIMPSO N,

JJJi TJVG'S HOAD .

BR/CHTON.

Preface

the connexion of Sanitary Science with the moral and religious condition of a people, is now recognised, though unfortunately public opinion is not yet sufficiently enlightened fully to appreciate all the bearings that the Science of Public Health has upon the highest interests of a great nation. To assist in popularizing correct views on such subjects, is at once the privilege and duty, not only of eminent scientific men, whose discoveries lend a lustre to their country and their age, but of the humble votary of science, who seeks to create a more just appreciation of their labours in the popular mind.

The author has again to express her obligation to the distinguished founders and members of the British Association, who have, in various ways, assisted her in her present work.

Chapter I. Page

Science an important Element in National Progress— Rapid Growth of Scientific Discovery — The Age of Bacon— Rise of Scientific Societies — The Royal Society!

Principle of Voluntary Association — Evils of Centralization — Mirabeau’s

Opinion of England’s Strength — Theoretical Science — Importance of Scientific Instruction — Deficiencies in English Education for all Classes — Classical Knowledge not the Key to Scientific Progress — Consequence of Ignorance — Indifference of Government to Science and its Cultivators — Neglect of Watt — Arago’s Eloge of Watt — Losses incurred through Ignorance of Science — in Agriculture — Defective Education for the Sons of Agriculturists — The late Earl of Leicester — His Improvements in Advance of his Age 1

Chapter II

Losses incurred in the Mechanical Arts — Evidence of Engineers, &c., as to Importance of Educated Workmen — Albert Escher, Esq. — William Fairbairn, Esq —

M. Coquiel on English Deficiencies in Industrial Training — Sacrifice of Life in Mines through Ignorance — Losses in Mines — Importance of Geological Science in Preventing Loss — Metallurgy, Losses from Ignorance of — Opinions of Scientific Men — Loss of Shipping and Human Life through Ignorance — Benefit of Improved Education for Sailors — Reports of Scientific Men on this Subject — Losses of Life through Ignorance of Sanitary Laws — In Large Towns — Villages — Pharmacy — Losses incurred through Ignorant Dispensers of Medicine — Importance of Improved Education for all Classes— Attention now paid to this Subject 44

Chapter III

Origin of the British Association — Previous Congress of Scientific Men in Germany — Sir David Brewster’s Letter — First Meeting in York — Arrangements for its Organization — First President, Viscount Milton — Adjournment to Oxford — Second Meeting — Beneficial Influence of the Association — Reports on the Existing State of Science — Degrees conferred by the University — Meeting at Cambridge — Progress of the Association — Use of the British Association — Remonstrance addressed to the Duke of Newcastle on becoming President — The Meeting at Leeds in 1858 — Leading Article in the Leeds Mercury — Populavia

CONTENTS.

PAGE

tion and Trade of Leeds— Town Hall — Programme of the Meeting — Inaugural

Address of President — A Visit to the Sections — Conversazione — Section F.

Woollen Manufactures of Leeds— Iron Trade — Lecture of Professor Phillips— Sections G. and C.— Horticultural Fete at Kirkstall Abbey— Sections G. and F. —President’s Lecture — Sections C. and E.— Paper on Penny Colonial Postage — Conversazione — Final Meeting

Chapter IV

Character of the Sections of the British Association — Section A, Mathematics and Physics — Results of the Labours of this Section— Importance of pure Mathematics— Astronomy — Discovery of new Planets — Neptune — Leverrier and Adams — Discoveries in Electricity and Magnetism — Electric Telegraph — Meteorology— The Tides — Section B, Chemistry and Mineralogy — Prevailing Ignorance of Chemistry — Agricultural Chemistry — Liebig and the British Association — Photography — Section 0, Geology — Its economical Applications — Sir Roderick Murchison, and the Discovery of Gold in Australia — High Claims of Geology — Section D, Zoology and Botany — Cuvier — Progress of Zoology — Its Importance — Pisiculture — Botanical Science — Subsection Physiology — Section E, Geography and Ethnology — Dr. Livingston’s Researches — Canada — Great Pacific Railway — Ethnology — Labours of Missionaries — Section F, Mechanical Science — Lord Rosse’s Address — Investigations carried on by the British Association — Use of Steam Power in Agricultural Districts — The Great Eastern — Section F, Economic Science and Statistics — Value of Statistical Science — Change of Name — Numerous Subjects brought before the Association 149

Chapter V

Present State of Scientific Education in England— Change in the Universities— Influence of His Royal Highness Prince Albert— The Oxford Museum— Scientific Instruction in our Public Schools— Middle Class Education— College of Preceptors

Mechanics’ Institutes— Dr. Booth on “ Examination the Province of the

State ” — Examination of Society of Arts— University Local Examinations— Science and Art Department— School of Mines— Geological Survey— Minute of Council— South Kensington Museum— Schools of Art— Benefits bestowed by British Association — Unity of Action desirable— Science the Handmaid of Christian Civilization— Infidelity— High Value of Christian Civilization „ . 186 f

THE HANDBOOK

OP THE

Strata.

Chapter I

Science an important Element in National Progress — Rapid Growth of Scientific Discovery — The Age of Bacon — Rise of Scientific Societies — The Royal Society — Principle of Voluntary Association — Evils of Centralization — Mirabeaus Opinion of England s Strength — Theoretical Science — Importance of Scientific Instruction — Deficiencies in English Education for all Classes — Classical Knowledge not the Key to Scientific Progress — Consequence of Ignorance — Indifference of Government to Science and its Cultivators — Neglect of Watt — Arago's Eloge of Watt — Losses incurred through Ignorance of Science — in Agriculture — Defective Education for the Sons of Agriculturists — the late Earl of Leicester — his Improvements in Advance of his Age.

“ In a national or universal point of view, the labour of the savant or speculative thinker is as much a part of production, in the very narrowest sense, as that of the inventor of a practical art ; many such inventions having been the direct consequences of theoretic discoveries, and every extension of knowledge of the powers of nature being fruitful of applications to the purposes of outward life. * * * No limit can be set to the importance, even in a purely productive and material point of view, of mere thought. Intellectual speculations must be looked upon as a most influential part of the productive labour of society, and the portion of its resources employed in carrying on and remunerating such labour as a highly productive part of its expenditure.”

Mills's “ Political Economy."

When reviewing the material progress of a great nation, it becomes a matter of high importance to ascertain, what have been the elements which have most contributed to a successful development of its resources; and the question will naturally arise, as to the nature of those which will tend most to advance a further progress of the highest order. The subject assumes a still deeper interest, when considered with reference

B

^ HANDBOOK OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

to the influence exercised by the Anglo-Saxon race over the whole earth ; an influence which we believe to be associated with the fulfilment of the designs of Divine Providence, for the Christian civilization of the world, and consequently to be fostered and cherished by those to whom it is committed, as a talent surpassing in value any that has ever been entrusted to a Christian people.

In the present day, when “ science has created resources unheard of before, and has removed the local barriers opposed to industry, and when we are rapidly approaching to, if we have not yet arrived at, the period of wonderful transition, when nations must speedily acquire the levels due to these different amounts of intellectual development, when competition in industry becomes a competition in intellect, when the nation most quickly promoting the intellectual development of its artisans must, by an inevitable law, advance, whilst the country neglecting its industrial training, must as inevitably recede j” * we think we are right in indicating the steady pursuit of abstract science, and the intellectual and industrial training of all classes of our population, as objects of the highest importance to our country, viewed as elements, not only in her material progress, but to enable her to realize and carry out all those enterprises of Christian philanthropy, which it is alike her glory, and her privilege to originate.

It has been remarked, by one of the most eminent scientific men of the present day, that “ Providence has placed this nation in a position in which the very condition of its existence seems to be progression.” t

Nations, as with nature, know no pause in progress and

* Dr. Lyon Playfair on tlio study of Abstract Science.

+ Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S., on the Application of Science to Agriculture.

INDIFFERENCE TO SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.

development, without a penalty being attached to such inaction;* and “ if England would still continue in advance, it will not be from the abundance of her coal and iron, but because, uniting science with practice, she enables her discoveries in philosophy to keep pace with her aptitude in applying them.”t

The fact that every scientific discovery or improvement becomes the common property of mankind, and is ultimately made subservient to the furtherance of their highest interests, would, in itself, be sufficient, we should think, to command the co-operation and sympathy of every Christian man, who sees, in this remarkable element of progress, a pledge for the fulfilment of many promises in God’s Holy Word ; but 'an indifference to the advancement of Science has nevertheless been our national reproach, many persons having considered it as a subject purely theoretical, and at the best “ but a training of the understanding, instead of viewing it as a firm basis for the discovery of truth.” And, even in the present day, we so constantly meet with those who do not understand, or appreciate scientific research, that we might well despair of ever seeing the formation of an enlightened public opinion on this subject.

But the progress of the past may well make us feel hopeful as to the future, when we look back and trace the growth of scientific discovery, and mark how rapid has been its advance during the last three centuries. “ If we revert back to the intellectual wanderings of science in its search for truth, it becomes surprising how soon it shook off the trammels of ignorance, and developed into a glorious liberty. It is no mean task for intellect to leap over the barriers of ignorance : it is even more easy to go ouward in new and untrodden paths. — The progress of

Goethe adapted by Humboldt. ■)* Dr. Lyon Playfair.

B 2

HANDBOOK OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

knowledge, the search after truth, can scarcely be recognised in its sublimity, by those who do not understand the errors which had to be swept away, before it could advance in an uninterrupted path.”*

Even beneath the shadow of scholasticism, in the cloistered cell, were the foundations being laid of modern Science, by the observations and experiments of the simple-minded men, who pursued their investigations amid difficulties, of which we, who live in a happier age, can form no conception. It is certain that many facts relating to experimental philosophy were current during the Middle Ages. This we learn from the writings of Roger Bacon and others, but some power was wanting to give the existing elements of scientific progress life and unity. Knowledge could not ripen into general principles (however extensive that of the isolated observer might be) while requiring aids and appliances, which the solitary individual could not obtain. Discoveries of the highest value to human progress “ even became corrupt in the dull stagnation of the mystery in which they were buried, and were used only as means of influence over the ignorant, as instruments of superstition or imposture, sources of delusion to their possessors themselves. Astronomy became astrology, — chemistry, alchemy, — natural philosophy, magic. Brewster has shown how the concave mirror brought up an apparition when it was needed, and Boutigny has revealed how the repulsive energies of heat ministered to the iniquity of the ordeal, t

Confined as the science of the time was to the narrow limits of the school philosophy, its progress was still further opposed by the intolerant spirit of the age, which could persecute a Copernicus and a Galileo.];

* Dr. Lyon Playfair. + Dr. Robinson.

+ Centuries before tlie appearance of Lord Bacon, lived an obscure Monk named Roger Bacon, that “early star predicting dawn,” who,

BACON, THE FOUNDER OF INDUCTIVE SCIENCE. 5

There were, doubtless, many solitary votaries of science, who, in their patient investigations into nature, might catch a glimmering of that light which dawned on the world, when the great representative of modern science, Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, appeared.

It has been well said, that “ there are two men who divide the philosophical history of the seventeenth century between them, — Bacon and Descartes. Speaking of the philosophy of this century, M. Cousin says, “ Deux hommes l’ouvrient et la constituent.”*

Substituting nature and experiment, for the tame and subtle specidations of the schoolmen, and the method of induction for the old system of Aristotle, the English philosopher entirely changed the course of inquiry, and exercised an important and highly beneficial influence ujion future generations of scientific observers.

Fortunate in living at a time when one great object of the Reformation, viz., the emancipation of the human mind, had been widely promulgated, Bacon, when he laid the foundation of inductive science, did so with the spirit of a reverent minister and interpreter of nature. He believed in his Bible, and science, no less than philosophy, felt its influence.

From the time he stood forth as a wise truth seeker, and as the inductive philosopher, opposing himself to mere speculations and hypotheses, unprofitable scholastic discussions and subtleties, regarding the Word and the works of God as

for his many discoveries in optics, chemistry, and astronomy, was charged by his brother Franciscans with practising the black art, and being possessed by the devil. He was kept in close confinement for ten years, his great offences being, that, through his scientific researches, he was in advance of his age, thus encountering the ignominy and persecution that have often been the portion of those who thus distinguish themselves. After ages have done justice to the obscure Friar.

* Two men originated and constituted it.

HANDBOOK OP THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

our only revelation, the dominion of the scholastic philosophy, of deductive ct priori science began to pass away.

“ Man,” writes Bacon, in some of his grand aphorisms, “ as the minister and interpreter of nature, does and understands as much as his observations on the order of nature, either with regard to things or the mind, permit him, and neither knows nor is capable of more.”

“ The sole cause and root of almost every defect in the Sciences is this, that while we falsely admire and extol the powers of the human mind, we do not search for its real helps.”

“ The subtlety of nature is far beyond that of sense or understanding, so that the specious meditations, speculations, and theories of mankind, are but a sort of insanity, only there is no one to stand by and observe it.”

“There is no small difference between the illusive conceptions of the human mind and the ideas of the Divine mind — that is to say, between certain idle dogmas, and the real stamp and impression of created objects as they are found in nature.”

With the progress of a free spirit of inquiry into the principles, laws, and limits of human knowledge, there arose attempts to systematize and combine them. The era of Bacon gave birth, as we have seen, to fresh and independent attempts of reason, to ground philosophical knowledge on experiment ; and “ the same century in which the ‘ Thema Cceli’ of Lord Yerulam, and the ‘ Nuncius Sidereus’ of Galileo, saw the light, was glorified by the publication of the ‘ Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathematica of Newton.” *

* Professor Owen’s Address, as President of the British Association at Leeds.

ORIGIN OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

But the time was come when the lusty spirit of liberty and progress which had arisen with the Reformation, was to manifest itself in a principle of free spontaneous association, which, by the extensiveness of its operation, should play an important part in the extraordinary development of the succeeding age.

In the “ New Atlantis” of Lord Bacon, he had prefigured an institution which he called “ Solomon’s House,” which grand philosophical dream doubtless gave rise to the first Scientific Association of Great Britain.

“ The end of its foundation,” said this great philosopher, “is the knowledge of causes and secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire to the effecting of all things possible.”

In the first stage of its action, the principle of association linked together only a few scientific men, drawn to each other by a sense of kindred pursuits and powers. In 164o, a small club of such persons assembled weekly in a room above an apothecary’s shop in the Strand, to discuss such subjects as Hervey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood, &c. A year after this period, the principal members of this little scientific association congregated at Oxford, but so few were they in number, that they called themselves the Invisible College. A description was given of them by the Hon. Robert Boyle, in the following words : — “ The best on’t is, that the corner stones of the ‘Invisible’ are men of so capacious and searching spirits, that the school philosophy is but the lowest region of their knowledge.”

But amidst the troubles of civil war, the little band again had to disperse, meeting again at the Gresham College, London, whence, after a year, they were obliged to leave, that the college might be used as a barrack for soldiers. In 1660, the meetings were again resumed, and in 1662, Charles

HANDBOOK OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

the Second constituted this band of philosophers “His Royal Society to Improve the Knowledge of Naturell Things, and all Useful Arts, Manufactures, Mechanic Practices, Engynes, and Inventions by Experiments.” Such was the origin of the Royal Society of Great Britain, and among its members were the noblest and choicest of England’s sons, — the pious and estimable Robert Boyle, the well-known John Evelyn, Sir Christopher Wren, the great naturalist Ray, Bishops Wilkins and Denham, the astronomers Flamstead and Halley ; and last, but hot least, it was to this little band of truth seekers, that Newton presented the “ Principia,” while it was also to them that was first communicated man’s mastery over steam, when Savery exhibited before them his engine to raise water by means of fire.

For some time the Royal Society was little more than a collector of detached facts and observations, and as there was no other society when it was first established, devoting itself to the pursuit of any branch of knowledge, it received communications embracing a very wide range. The rapid increase of knowledge of all kinds rendered at last a division of labour necessary j and, in 171 7, the institution of the Society of Antiquaries took away one large class of communications, while, seventy years later, the Einmean Society was founded for the cultivation of Natural History. Another Society was formed to devote itself to Geology, another to Astronomy, and various other Societies were subsequently called into existence according to the exigencies of the age, leaving the parent stock only the more vigorous for the frequent disruptions of her progeny.

‘‘If it were possible for any one of that small but illustrious band of philosophers— who just two centuries ago were associated in Gresham College for the purpose of mutually communicating and receiving knowledge, and who

PROGRESS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

there laid the foundation of the Society which is now assembled— to revisit the scene of his former labours, we may well conceive the delight which it would afford him to learn, that the success of that noble enterprise had been so much greater, than his most sanguine aspirations could have led him to anticipate. Not only would he find an ample development of sciences which were then in the embryo state of their existence, but he would find other sciences, not inferior to these in interest and importance, added to the list. He would find, that, instead of a limited number of individuals who were then occupied with scientific inquiries, whose labours were held in little estimation by the general public, and even held to be objects of ridicule by the presumptuous and ignorant, there is now a large number devoted to the same pursuits, and successfully applying to them the highest powers of the human intellect. He would perceive that, instead of being confined, as it were, to a comer, the love of knowledge is gradually becoming extended throughout the length and breadth of the land ; and that of those whose position does not afford them the opportunity of penetrating to the inmost recesses of the temple of science, there are many who, having advanced as far as the vestibule, are enabled even there to obtain their reward, in the improvement of their own minds, and in being rendered more useful members of the community.” *

But the principle of voluntary association which had been the instrument of binding together the scientific and learned in the -Royal Society, was destined, at a future time, still further to manifest its mighty power ; and we shall, in a future Chapter, have occasion, in tracing the Rise and Progress

. Address of Sir B. Brodie, Bart., as President of the Royal Society, December 9th, 1858.

B 5 of the British Association, to present a most remarkable exhibition of its efficiency.

Prior to the period of the foundation of this Society, the privilege of labouring to extend the boundaries of knowledge was the glory of a chosen few ; and even when the age of Societies began, many years elapsed before this attempt was made to widen the portals of the palace of Truth, and throw down the harriers which rigidly enclosed the aristocracy of science.

Thus, till within a very recent period, the cultivators of science in Great Britain were, comparatively, few in number ; and, as the larger proportion of our population were incapable of estimating its value, they rested happy and contented in their ignorance, looking upon science and scientific men with equal indifference ; the name of the former being identical, in their minds, with crude theories and speculations of the wildest character, and the latter with that of men who, for the sake of such theories, were capable of the greatest extravagancies.

Quite unaware of the connexion between theoretical science, and the development of the industrial arts, and that abstract science is necessary to the full development of a nation’s resources, “ Practice, standingi still in the pride of empiricism, and in the ungrateful forgetfulness of what science had done, reared upon its portal the old and vulgar adage, ‘ An ounce of practice is worth a ton of theory and as it was incapable of appreciating the labours of the scientific man, so refused to believe in the high value of the science to which he devoted a lifetime.

While we may well regret that the claims of science and scientific men should have so long remained unrecognised to a proper extent, and that the cause of such neglect should be the inability of successive Governments, to appreciate the value of pure scientific research to a great nation, we do not

PRINCIPLE OF VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATION.

fail to remember that a part of this singular deficiency may be traced to the very character of the free constitution under which we have the happiness to live. The leading statesmen of Continental Europe, who have had ample experience of the working of a despotic system, which substitutes itself for the collective or individual action of the people, and which subordinates everything to its own initiative, to its own correction, authorization, supervision, intervention, and personal interest, state, in the most unhesitating manner, their conviction that the life and strength, the greatness and stability, of England, are the results of a constitution and a system of government under which “the chief interests of all civilized peoples — education, charity, police — strike their roots, and draw their sap from the inexhaustible reservoir of the independent wills and spontaneous sacrifices of twenty millions of Christian souls.”

Count Montalembert, in his recent work on England, remarks : —

“ If we descend from individuals to the mass, and if we seek to investigate profoundly the distinctive traits of the English people in its political action, we shall find that the characteristic virtue of English society is, exertion, — personal, prolonged, energetic, and spontaneous exertion. Now, every one knows that exertion is the first condition of merit and of virtue in our temporal life, as in our spiritual. The system of Government which excites most to exertion, to labour, to struggle, is that, then, which contributes the most to the morality of a nation, as to its honour. This is the peculiarity of a representative Government, perfectly comprehended and applied, in that particular which is most important of all, by tbe Anglo-Saxon race. There, no one dreams iff requiring the Government to do everything, to provide everything, to teach everything, to decide everything. The

Englishman gives his money, his time, his name, to a work of charity or of public interest ; he makes it his glory that the entei’prise which he has thus adopted should be kept on a level with all the requirements and progress of the age ; b ut in order to accomplish this, he does not dream of invoking or accepting the meddling hand of the agents of power* in regard to everything which his forefathers and himself have founded.”

Another eminent statesman, the late representative of Prussia at the Court of St. James’s, — Chevalier Bunsen, — thus speaks of the impressions which he had received after fourteen years’ residence in England : —

“ On my return to my own country, last summer, I began to compare the impressions with which I had left Germany, with the more ripe views which, through more extended study, and a more large experience, I had obtained. I confess, as a German and a Prussian, not without sorrow, that expei'ience and reflection have convinced me of the truth of the political principle, that the system of centralisation is inconsistent with the education of the people to true freedom, and is a system which, in the long run, weakens more than it strengthens that authority of the State in behalf of which it is maintained. By centralisation I mean the common Continental system of governing merely by Government officials. The necessary operation of this system is to keep the people in perpetual tutelage, to interdict them from performing the slightest function of public life on their own motion, and to prevent the existence of any social organism alongside of itself.” *

* “ It is necessary,” says Lieber, “ to have seen nations who have been trained for centuries to submit to constant and minute police interference, in order to have any conception of the degree to which manly action, self-dependence, resoluteness, and inventiveness of proper means, can be eradicated from a whole community.

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY.

Chevalier Bunsen mentions, as one of the phenomena which stood forward to his mind’s eye as signs of the times, both by the extensiveness of their operation, and by the pregnancy of their significance, the power of free spontaneous association, remarking that, in Great Britain generally, there is scarcely any great movement, or public work of which the roots are not to be found in that principle. The difference, then, between the comparative helplessness of the so-called paternally-governed nations of Europe, and the spontaneous energy and self-helping ability of the English people, may be traced to the difference of discipline — the one being a natural result of a state-superintending policy, while the latter is the consequence of a constitution which leaves much to the action of a free people.

Nor let us forget, when we justly arraign the past governing powers of our nation, that, whatever may be the duty of the national body, in that collective capacity as a Government, is their duty individually. Still further, it has been affirmed, and with truth, that a Government cannot be lastingly neglectful of a great duty, but because the individuals constituting the community are so.* We are too apt to speak, as if our Government, which, in our happy country, is essentially a representative one, were an affair entirely foreign to our own duty, will, action, and responsibility. When we assert, that, until within a recent period, the Government of Great Britain has been criminally neglectful, through every change of its Ministry, of the education and moral condition of the working classes, can we also say that the majority of persons of rank, influence, and intelligence, have, all the time, been earnestly engaged in seeking

* * ^he submission of a free people to the executive authority of (lovemment, is no more than a compliance with laws which they themselves have enacted.”— Ackers of Junius.

remedies for such evils? Had such an enlightened spirit existed and prevailed widely in past years, England would not have lagged behind in the educational race.*

The truth is, that the advocates of education have had to combat an amount of prejudice and ignorance on the part of influential members of society, which might well have discouraged and paralyzed all exertion, had they looked for their reward, in the appreciation of their labours, to those around them.