An analysis of poisons, including the symptoms, treatment, morbid appearances, and tests, with decompositions

Preface

There is one great error which authors generally commit, their writings are not sufficiently elementary for the student, but are better adapted for those far advanced in professional knowledge ; for that part of chemistry which relates to the mineral kingdom, it is especially the case. The metals in a pure and uncombined state are described, and easily recognized when seen ; but in an impure and j^tcombined state, the student meets with the greatest difficulty, for although he may be successful in obtaining a few tests after perusing several works, and on applying them, witness the important changes taking place, as fluids becoming solids, solids becoming fluids, and the mixture of liquors producing all the colors of the rainbow; yet he may not

IV

FEFACE.

understand the nature of these changes, or the composition of the new formed substances.

I have described the nature and quality of the most important substances that require special investigation, and have given their action on the animal economy, the symptoms they induce in poisonous doses, the antidotal treatment, morbid appearances, and the tests, with the rationale of the changes which occur during the action of the reagents, with their equivalent, or combining numbers.

ANALYSIS OF POISONS.

Chapter I. Preliminary Remarks

When the practitioner is called to attend a person labouring under the suspicion of being poisoned, the greatest caution on his part is required.

In the first place, no time should be lost in applying suitable remedies to the apparent symptoms of the patient, and in this he will be assisted by the presence of a wine glass, phial, or paper, containing some remains of a liquid or powder.

In the next place, he must inquire whether the symptoms came on shortly after eating, and if so, what food the patient had recently partaken, and in what vessel it was cooked ; he ought at the same time to obtain possession of all that remains, so that, in case of a medico-legal inquiry, he may be able to analyse it.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

lu the third place, he must have all the matter (brought away, either by vomit or stool) carefully preserved, as in cases where poison has been administered, the best indication of its presence will be thus ascertained, especially in the vomited matter. If the body of a person has been found, and he is called in to examine it, he must first proceed to the place from whence it came, carefully noting whether there are any appearances of foot marks, or any indication of resistence, or whether, in consequence of the peculiar situation of the place, death might have occurred accidentally, as entering a well, cave, cellar, brew-house, sewer, &c., where noxious gases are likely to be generated. If the body was found in bed, he must then observe whether there was good ventilation ; if a charcoal fire had been burning, or if the room had contained many flowers, as serious consequences have occurred, from persons incautiously sleeping in a confined room, containing a large quantity of May-flowers, &c. ; he must likewise keep a watchful eye over the actions of persons surrounding him. Occasionally by some action or expression he may obtain a clue which will assist in guiding him through the mysterious labyrinth in which he is involved. It is

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

here that the experienced practitioner has a great advantage, because he obtains all the necessary information without exciting the suspicion of those around him, that he is narrowly watching their actions.

Before he inspects the body, he must see whether the clothes are stained, muddy, or torn, as if the individual had struggled to get away. In examining the body he must be careful to observe if there are any marks on the skin, such as punctures, bruises, stains, &c., and if any are present, to discriminate whether they are recent ; if so, whether they are the effects of ecchymosis,or extravasated blood, into the cellular tissue ; or merely the gravitation of blood to that part of the body which is undermost ; or if they result from the action of some irritant or corrosive substance having been applied. If there is any sanguineous discharge from any of the natural outlets of the body, such as the ears, nose, eyes, &c. ; he must examine these parts minutely, to see if any instrument had passed through either of these organs into the brain or viscera, thereby causing death : having satisfied himself on these points, he may next proceed to examine the internal parts.

CRANIAL CAVITY.

INSPECTION OF THE INTERNAL PARTS OF THE BODY,

By the previous examinations, which the practitioner has made, he will generally be able to determine in which cavity of the body the cause of death has originated, and accordingly he will proceed to examine it; but if no external appearances exist, whereby he may infer in which particular viscus it is to be looked for, then he must commence the examination of the four cavities ; they are Cranial, Thoracic, Abdominal, and Pelvic.

CRANIAL CAVITY.

This cavity contains the brain and its membranes. To open it, an incision must be made, commencing just above the cartilage of one ear, carrying it across the head to that on the opposite side ; dissect back the scalp — the anterior flap must be drawn over the eyes, the posterior over the occipital protuberance. Next, with a fine saw, cut very carefully through the different bones of the skull, commencing at the depression of the frontal bone above the eye-brows, through the temporal above the ear, and through the occipital protuberance ; then do the same to the other side ; lie must be careful to cut through

CRANIAL CAVITY.

the bone, and yet not to injure the subjacent dura mater ; with an elevator now raise the bone carefully, and when removed, numerous little bloody spots will be seen on the membrane beneath ; this is owing to the rupture of small blood vessels, passing from it into the substance of the bone. Next, examine if the removed bone is fractured, or has any protuberances on it, which by pressing on the brain might be the cause of death ; make a circular incision of the membranes of the brain, and remove them, observing at the same time if any sanguineous or serous fluids escape from underneath (which should also be noticed in sawing through the bones of the head, as effusion of serum, external to the dura mater, is a frequent result of inflammation of the membranes) ; being removed, they must be next examined, to see if any tumours are attached to them, or if they are preternatu rally thickened. The external surface of the brain must also be examined, if the vessels are turgid, or any of them ruptured, or if there is any extravasation of blood upon its surface.

Inspection of the substance of the brain. — Cut the two hemispheres of the brain off a little above the corpus callosum ; examine these to

a 2

THORACIC CAVITY.

see if there is any ramolissement, abscess, or extravasated clot, if the vessels are much gorged ; next open the ventricles, noting their contents, such as the quantity and consistence of the fluids, &c. ; then examine carefully the base of the brain, observing if there is any thing unusual either in its appearance or texture.

The cerebellum is to be examined in the same manner. When the brain is removed, we must inspect the base of the skull, and observe if there are any extraneous bodies, such as tumours, thick ning of the parietes, &c., or if the skull is fractured.

THORACIC CAVITY.

This cavity contains the heart, lungs, large blood vessels, and oesophagus. Great care is requisite in investigating these parts, not to injure any of the large vessels, so as to cause extravasation, which would frustrate the examination. To obtain a view of this cavity, an incision must be carried from the clavicular end of the sternum to the symphysis of the pubes, dividing the integuments, muscles, and peritonaeum ; next, make a transverse incision three inches along each clavicle; dissect back the integuments

THORACIC CAVITY.

of the sternum and ribs, then with a fine saw cut the shafts of the ribs through, within three inches of their attachment to the cartilage ; in sawing through them, great care is requisite not to injure the parts situated beneath. When the bones are well separated, pass the hand underneath the sternum so as quietly to detatch any adhesions of the pleura, then reflect the whole towards the face. The pleura, covering the lungs and heart, being exposed to view, they must be opened. In the pericardium a small quantity of fluid is generally found, which allows the approximate surfaces of the membrane to move easily, but sometimes there is an accumulation of several ounces ; it is then in a diseased or morbid state, and may cause death by impeding the heart’s action — it is generally the effect of chronic inflammation. In the pleura, lining the lungs, also a small quantity of fluid is usually found, which lubricates the sides and allows them to play freely ; but as in the pericardium so in the pleura the quantity of fluid may be so large as not to allow the lungs their power of dilatation, and death may result from suffocation; the cavities may also contain besides serum, blood and pus ; the extravasation of the first may be caused

THORACIC CAVITY.

by some external injury, or rupture of a large bloodvessel, as occasionally happens in fractured ribs, aneurism, phthisis, &c. ; the production of the latter may be caused by the irritation produced by some foreign body, as a spicula of bone from a fractured rib, or the bursting of an abscess from the lungs or liver ; sometimes there is a communication between the lungs and pleura, and a large quantity of pus may be accumulated in the latter, when heemotysis supervenes ; the patient in this case is generally carried off ; and, on examination, the effused blood will be found mixed with the pus in the pleura.

Lungs. — The lungs and bronchi should benext examined. Death may ensue from the insertion of a foreign substance into the windpipe, or from hemoptysis, or compression of the lungs by an opening made through the integuments and pleura, allowing the air to rush in, or by pulmonary, apoplexy, &c. The proximate cause of these morbid appearances is easily detected by the operator.

Heart. — The heart may present some one of these morbid appearances to which the death of the individual may be attributed. It may have its parieties hypertrophied or enlarged, with dilatation

ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

of the cavity, or hypertrophy, with lessening of the cavity, or the valves may be hypertrophied without alteration of the walls or cavity. There may be atrophy or softening of the texture of the heart, inducing aneurism, or there may be some malformation. The oesophagus may be examined with the stomach. Having examined the thoracic viscera, and no morbid appearance presenting itself, whereby we may discover the proximate cause of disease, we proceed to examine the

ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

This cavity contains the liver, stomach, intestines, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and peritonaeum.

Liver . — The morbid appearances with which the liver is liable to be affected, and which generally terminate in a sudden death, are the following : — abscess of the liver, bursting either into the pleura or peritonaeum, rupture of the liver from a violent blow, rupture of a blood vessel in the liver. (Vide Mayo Path. p. 390.)

Stomach. — The only two morbid states of the stomach in which sudden death takes placets perforation of its coats, with an escape of the contents into the peritonaeum, and active haemateme-

ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

sis. Before the operator proceeds to examine the contents of this viscus, he must pass two ligatures round its cardiac orifice, about half au inch apart, and two round its pyloric ; he may then pass his knife between each of the two ligatures, and remove the stomach : this ought next to be examined, and its contents carefully placed in some vessel on one side; if there are any peculiar appearances on its inside (such as redness or marks of inflammation, or if the mucous membrane is abraded in any part, or discoloured ; also if there is any preternatural softening or perforation of its texture, or great turgescency of the vessels), they may be noted down ; the oesophagus being removed, should be submitted to the same examination as the stomach; when this is finished, they should undergo the operation of testing.

Intestines. — The intestines are to be submitted to the same treatment as the stomach and oesophagus.

Spleen. — A violent blow on the region of the spleen, inducing laceration and an effusion of blood, may cause death, by its becoming lacerated, and an effusion of blood taking place.

Pancreas. — Sudden death, I believe, has not occurred from any morbid state of the pancreas.

EQUIVALENT NUMBERS.

Peritonaeum. — The peritonaeum may be next examined, to ascertain if there are any marks of inflammation, or serous effusion, &c.

Kidneys. — On examining the kidneys, any unusual or unhealthy appearance may be noted down, as several species of calculus, abscesses, hydatides, &c. are frequently observed.

PELVIC CAVITY.

In this cavity are contained the urinary and reproductive organs, as also the rectum. Several cases are on record of persons having had poison applied to these parts, for the purpose of destroying life, and therefore they require a very careful examination. The parts require to be taken out, and the appearance of the different surfaces must be noted down ; they are then to be cut into small shreds, and boiled in distilled water, and filtered ; the residual matter is to be submitted to a similar process, so that if there are any remains of poison attached to these parts, it may be dissolved, and held in solution ; this is next to be treated with its proper re-agents.

EQUIVALENT NUMBERS.

By equivalent number we mean the definite proportion by weight, in which all bodies com-

EQUIVALENT NUM UK US.

bine, one being taken as a standard of comparison : as hydrogen is supposed to be the lightest ponderable body in nature, so it is placed at the commencementof the scale; the combining proportion of carbon is six ; oxygen eight ; thus water is formed of eight parts of oxygen by weight, and one of hydrogen ; therefore, nine, the resulting number, is the exact proportion in which it combines with other bodies. But many bodies have the property of combining in several proportions, that is, in some multiple of the first.

Oxygen for instance, unites, with nitrogen in five proportions, each being a multiple of the first.

I4Nitrogen+ 8orlEqt.of Oxygen=22 or 1 Eqt. of Protox. ofNitro. 14 Nitrogen+16or2Eqt.of 0xygen=30 or 1 Eqt. ofDeutox. of ditto. 14 Nitrogen +24 or 3 Eqt. of Oxygen=38or 1 Eqt of Hyponitrous acid 14 Nitrogen+32 or 4 Eqt. of Oxygen=46 or 1 Eqt. of Nitrous acid.

14 Nitrogen+40 or 5 Eqt. of Oxygen=54or 1 Eqt. of Nitric acid.

Chlorine, the equivalent number of which is

thirty-six, unites with Mercury in two proportions.

200 or 1 Eqt.of Merc. +36 or 1 Eqt. of Chlor.=236 or 1 Eqt.of Caloraile. 200 or 2 Eqt. of ditto + 72 or 2 Eqt. of ditto=272or 1 Eqt. of Cor. Sub.

We would advise every one to study diligently the equivalent numbers, as they materially assist in the elucidating of the numerous and complicated changes, which occur in practical chemistry.

CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS.

CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS.

This list of the Chemical Equivalents of the simple elementary bodies is taken from Turner’s

Chemistry .

Aluminum

] 3.7

Molybdenum

47.96

64.6

Nickel

29.5

37.7

Nitrogen

14.15

68.7

Osmium

99.7

Boron

10.9

Palladium

53.3

Bromine

78.4

Phosphorus

15.7

Cadmium

55.8

Platinum

98.8

20.5

Potassium

39.15

Carbon

6. 12

Rhodium

52.2

Cerium

Selenium

39.6

35.42

Silicium

7.5

Chromium

Silver

10.8

Cobalt

29.5

Sodium

23.3

31.6

Strontium

43.8

Fluorine

18.68

Sulphur

16.1

Glucinum

17.7

Tellurium

32.3

Gold

199.2

Thorium

59.6

Hydrogen

Tin

58.9

Iodine

126.3

Titanium

24.3

tridium

98.8

Tungsten

94.8

[ron

Vanadium

68.6

Lead

103.6

Uranium

Lithium

Yttrium

32.2

Magnesium

12.7

Zinc

32.3

Manganese

27.7

Zirconium

33.7 c

14 SINGLE AND DOUBLE ELECTIVE AFFINITY.

The discrepancy between the equivalent numbers in this table, and those contained in the following pages, is owing to the latitude given to the student (for the sake of making the study of these numbers less difficult), of converting the equivalents terminating in fractions, into whole numbers; that is, to take the nearest round figure to which they approximate : for example, potassium is 39.15, for common experiments it may be set down as 40 ; chlorine is properly 35.42, its equivalent number is called 36 ; carbon is 6.12, the number may be stated to be 6, &c. But on those occasions where the calculations are required to be very exact, the numbers set down in this table must be used.

SINGLE AND DOUBLE ELECTIVE AFFINITY.

The peculiar property which some bodies possess, of uniting with one of the elements of binary compounds to the displacement of the other, is termed single elective affinity ; for these changes it is necessary that the substance employed should be held in solution, and that the new compound be insoluble ; but the term is best explained by an example. If sulphuric acid is added to a solution of acetate of lead, the oxide directly quits

TESTING FOIl POISONS.

the acetic acid (which remains in solution), and uniting with the sulphuric acid, is precipitated as a white sulphate ; the oxide of lead here seems to have a greater attraction or affinity for the sulphuric acid, and therefore unites with it. in preference to the acetic acid.

When one binary compound is added to another, and a mutual decomposition ensues, so that two new compounds are formed, the action that regulates these changes is termed double elective affinity .

Example : — If sulphate of copper is added to carbonate of potash, a mutual change of principles takes place ; an insoluble carbonate of copper is thrown down, and sulphate of potash remains in solution. In this case the oxide of copper has a greater affinity for the carbonic acid than the potash, and the potash has a greater affinity for the sulphuric acid than the copper ; therefore these two new compounds are the result.

TESTING FOR POISONS.

Poisons may require to be tested, either in their uncombined state (as when some remains are found in a wine glass, paper, phial, or undissolved in the excreted matters), or in a state of mixture,

ACIDS.

(as when dissolved and mixed in the fluids of the stomach, or in articles of diet).

In an uncombined state. — If the suspected poison is liquid, the practitioner must first test whether it is acid, alkaline, or neutral ; to perform this, he must use a piece of litmus and turmeric paper. If the litmus is turned red, the solution is acid ; if the turmeric paper is stained brown, the dissolved substance is alkaline ; if the colour of either slip of paper be not changed, then the solution is neutral.

This is very essential in preparatory testing, as it saves considerable time and labour; for the practitioner may be searching for the oxide of a metal, and may proceed to test for each one individually till he has run through the entire catalogue, when, after the lapse of considerable time and labour, to his astonishment, he finds an acid has been taken. When he has finished this preparatory testing, and has discovered to which of the three classes the substance under consideration belongs, he may refer to the following list : —

ACIDS.

.Acetic is known by the peculiar ordour of its vapour; with nitrate of silver, a black precipitate falls.

NEUTRAL SALTS. ] 7

Muriatic and Nitric — When mixed together, the} dissolve gold.

Sulphuric— Added to a soluble salt of baryta, a white precipitate falls.

Prussic — Known by its almond-like odour.

Oxalic — With lime, an insoluble oxalate is formed.

ALKALIES.

Ammonia — Its peculiar vapour is given off by the application of heat.

Potash — Precipitated by tartaric acid.

Soda — Not precipitated by tartaric acid.

Baryta forms an insoluble precipitate with sulphuric acid.

Lime — Oxalic acid thrown down, an insoluble oxalate of lime.

NEUTRAL SALTS.

Salts not precipitated by liydrosulphuret of ammonia, nor by carbonate of potash.

They are the salts of ammonia, potash, soda, &c. Salts not precipitated by liydrosulphuret of ammonia, but by carbonate of potash, they are the salts of paryta, lime, &c.

c 2

IN A STATE OF MIXTURE.

Salts precipitated by hydrosulphuret of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen. They are

Hydrosulphuret. Sulphuretted Hydrog.

Antimony . . .

. .Orange,

. .Blackish brown,

. .Black,

Gold

. .Yellow,

Lead

. . Black,

, . Black,

Silver

. .Black,

Tin

Protoxide black,

^ Brown ,

Peroxide yellow,

Zinc

White

.Yellowish white.

These tables may give some slight clue as to the nature of the substance taken. (For more copious remarks, see the description of the poison.)

If the substance is in the solid state, it must be dissolved in distilled water, and the previous general analysis must be adopted.

IN A STATE OF MIXTURE.

When the contents of the stomach, or any membrane supposed to have had poison applied to it, is to be examined, the membrane must be cut into small pieces, and placed in a vessel with the contents of the stomach ; pure distilled water must be added, and the solution filtered ; the residual matter on the filter must be rubbed down in a mortar, and fresh distilled water applied to it,

CORROSIVE, OR IRRITANT, POISONS. 19

and again filtered. This is to be repeated several times ; the filtered liquid is to be evaporated to a proper consistence, and then tested with the above re-agents. Each substance likely to be used for the purpose of destroying life, will be treated more fully elsewhere, together with its appropriate re- agents, &c.