A short account of the modes of sewage disposal in some of the chief towns of England : together with a little information on the subject likely to be of use in India

Contents

Pa&e

Introduction

A few of the objections to and advantages of the chief systems tabulated -

CHAPTER I. The Evils of Sewage misapplied

The economy of nature in respect of decay and reproduction - 13

Nature of the excrements, solid and liquid - - _ - 13

Organic matter - - . ... _ _14

Organic poisons ""-----15

CHAPTER II. Descriptive Account of existing Sewage Works

The main drainage of London - - . . - 19

Abbey Mills pumping station -22 Croydon, irrigation -------23

Rugby do.

Worthing do.

Barking do.

Edinburgh do.

Aldershott do.

Carlisle do.

Banbury do.

Leicester, lime process

Ealing, lime and petroleum refuse . 39

Leamington, A. B. C. process Stroud, clay and sulphuric acid Paris, alum, experiments Liverpool, intended irrigation

Worcester, Gloucester, Brighton, Southampton, Salisbury - " 49 50 Birmingham, subsidiary tanks only, irrigation proposed . - ' 50

Manchester, ashpit system Derby, irrigation proposed Moule's system -

Patent dry earth commodes, Wimbledon Stanford's suggestion to use seaweed charcoal

26 27 29 31 33 36 37 37

43 48 49

50 53 54 54

Taylor's Patent dry commodes without earth, Romscv Kk

Captain Tiernier's— - 00

Removal by atmospheric pressure - . . - (Jo (5608.) 0

CHAPTER III. Miscellaneous

Page

Thomas Carghill's pamphlet on the mode of irrigating - 61 Local Management Act (Weale's compilation) :

The substanee of the Act only, as a guide to the Act and its amendments (to be obtained of Eyre & Spottiswoode, the Queen's Printers) - 63

Drinking water-supply :

A few remarks on the impurities and the mode of testing and

house filtration G6 Concluding remarks, chiefly with reference to sewage application to Indian towns J3

LIST OF PAMPHLETS, &o., CONSULTED.

" What shall we do with our Refuse?" Manchester sewage, (Henry Simpson,) is the title of a pamphlet of which the drift seems to be to point out that if the sifted ashes from the grates are used in a proper manner, it will supply the place of earth to Moule's system, and remove part of the great objection to it, i.e., the great expense of carriage.

" The high Death Rate, in answer to the above " (Manchester.) (J. C. Morrell.) Points out the mode in which the ashes may be sifted by a grating, and gives a drawing of the kind of privy for effecting this with least trouble.

" Remarks on Town Sewage." Arthur Jacob. Represents the advantage of the irrigation system as financially sounder than any other. Instances Croydon, and disparages the earth system on account of the expense of the earth carriage.

" Sewage," and its Application to Crops. Thomas Carghill, C.E. Gives plans of the mode of conducting the sewage over the land, and several interesting details of the effect of sewage.

" Sanitary Sittings," by a Naval Officer. An advocate of Moule's earth system.

" On the Disposal of Sewage in Towns." Henry Waugh, C.E. Pointing out the failure of the lime process at Leicester, and the success of the lunatic asylum irrigation works.

" The A. B. C. Process." Report of the Experiments at Leicester.

" Collection and Removal of the Refuse of Edinburgh," by C. Macpherson, Esq., C.E., burgh engineer. A very exhaustive description of the irrigation and other works at Edinburgh, where 336 acres are cultivated, and showing the method of applying the sewage.

" Sewage of Towns," Leamington Congress Papers. Conference on several systems.

" What are the best Means for Disposal of the Sewage of Towns ?" J. Walworth, Manchester. Advocate of the ashpit system.

" The Drainage of Paris and London." Hederstadt and Bazalgette. Discharge by outfall into the river at one locality.

*" Local Management Act," Weale. Obligations of local authorities and house owners in respect of drains, &c.

" Water, and its Impurities and Purification." London and General Water Purifying Company. Tests for impurities.

A Chemist's View of the Sewage Question, Ed. C. C. Stanford, F.G.S. (See " Chemical News," No. 495, vol. 19.) Suggests the use of sea-weed charcoal for earth in Moule's system.

Usury, by W. C. Sillar ; pointing out the evils of the system which tend to keep the industry of a country in a state of stagnation and prostration, by which the health of the community must suffer.

Treatment of Sewage, by John Hart, Esq. (Leamington); giving apian of a circular purifier for sewage, prior to its use in irrigation.

British Guano, by Dr. Taylor, Romsey.

INTRODUCTION.

Extracts from the "Standard," July 12, 1869.— "Two important judgments have just been pronounced in the Chancery Courts having reference to the disposal of town sewage. One case affects the Local Board of Health at Merthyr Tydvil, and the other the Corporation of Halifax. In each case we find that the authorities have been zealously engaged in carrying out works for draining their town, the success of these efforts being indicated by the magnitude of the nuisance inflicted elsewhere. Merthyr Tydvil poisoned the Taff, to the annoyance of the parties owning and working certain extensive collieries. Halifax appears as the principal offender in converting a sparkling brook, called the Hebble, into a common sewer, to the detriment of a firm of damask and worsted manufacturers, with their tenants and workpeople. As long ago as last September an injunction was granted against the local board at Merthyr Tydvil, but the authorities had continued the flow of the sewage as before. The Master of the Eolls has now issued an order of sequestration, which is to be held in abeyance until a period in Michaelmas Term. The defence set up by the authorities was that they were acquiring land for irrigation and could do nothing until they got it. At Halifax the nuisance was partly denied and partly excused, on the ground that the plaintiffs had for a long time acquiesced in it, and as members of the Town Council had actually helped to bring about the state of things to which they now objected. Vice-Chancellor Sir W. M. James, in giving judgment, expressed his conviction that so large a sewer could not discharge into so small a stream without creating a nuisance, in addition to which he was satisfied by the evidence that a nuisance of a most offensive character did actually exist. He therefore ' had no hesitation ' in granting an immediate injunction to restrain the Town Council of Halifax from extending their system of drainage, and an injunction to tal;e effect in June 1870, against pouring out sewage from the present outfalls in an unpurified state. How the authorities of Halifax are going to proceed is not clear ; but the Vice- Chancellor at the close of his judgment said he was satisfied the corporation would in time be able to remedy the evil, so as to prevent it from being practically a nuisance, and to deprive the plaintiffs of any ground of complaint."

In the course of a few inquiries into the best mode of dealing with the sewage and refuse of towns, I found that hardly two persons were of the same opinion. Those that had had any experience of any one system were generally opposed entirely to every other.

In seeking information from the pamphlets of various persona who had taken an interest in the subject, to the extent of incurring the expense of printing, I found that these contained a great many arguments for and against, without going into any particular description of the modes adopted for carrying them out. They apparently assumed that we knew all about the details, and that they were only called upon to deal with it in a large and comprehensive way. It has been my object in the present paper to give a description of a few of the methods I have seen adopted in England, and I have supplemented the information by such extracts from the pamphlets as it might be considered should not be wanting to make the thing as complete as practicable. I must, however, explain that it has not been my object to instruct engineers or scientific persons in any one of the points noted by me, but to place such an amount of information as can conveniently begot into a condensed shape at the disposal of all interested, that they may be able to judge for themselves from what has been done what could be attempted again. I cannot hope that the paper will be satisfactory in all respects, for the ways and means of collecting information are sometimes rather difficult. I may mention that in all cases where I have applied to the local authorities of any town I have invariably received the greatest courtesy and the fullest information on subjects connected with the drainage or water supply, and should any of them read this paper I trust that if I have misrepresented any of the facts they will rest assured that it has occurred unintentionally. The notes have been made without any particular reference to opinions, and I have endeavoured to confine myself entirely to descriptions of works I have either visited or read of.

The great question that occupies the minds of all concerned in the disposal of sewage, is how to prevent the pollution of rivers or sea coasts.

At one time it was considered that waterclosets with a perfect system of sewers and drains discharging into the sea or river was the remedy for sickness in towns.

It has proved, however, that the discharge of sewage into the rivers and the sea has led to the defilement to an alarming extent of the shores, and that something yet remains to be done before we are to be free from danger.

Some are for disposing of this sewage by irrigation, others are for dedoorizing and precipitating the solid part and allowing the liquid to flow into the river. Others advocate the system of ash pits, while there are some who go to the root of the affair and wish to prevent the solid excreta from entering the sewers at all.

Then it is becoming generally understood that, apart from the question of the most effectual remedy for preventing sickness from foul rivers and streets, by our present system we are depriving the soil of those fertilising agents contained in the sewage which are necessary for the reproduction of the same substances from which the food has been derived ; and it has been the aim of all the advocates of any one system of drainage disposal to combine either profit, or the greatest economy by rendering the sewage as valuable as possible.

Now it appears to me that the only way to consider the questions of relative merits of any of these systems is to concede - that the one point to be gained is cleanliness of towns and purity of the streams and shores, and that one may be preferred which is most convenient. Should any profit be gained by any system of deodorization or irrigation in connexion therewith which may be necessary to effect the end in view, so much the better.

Of all the systems I have seen I cannot point out one that may not be useful under certain circumstances. It seems absurd to say that any one system is perfect, or that it can be applied to all towns.

I am inclined to doubt that any great profit (in money) to the public in general has been realized as yet with the proceeds of sewage, from whatever system, but that advantage of some sort or other has been derived in almost every case, in the way of prevention of nuisances, can hardly be denied.

It may be useful to note a few of the objections that have been raised to some of the systems against some of the advantages.

Discharge from Waterclosets into Rivers.

Against.

Waterclosets have been objected to altogether by some people, the chief cause being the foul sewer gas that finds its way up from the sewers.

Percolation into wells from defectively constructed sewers.

Waste of the sewage as a fertilizer of the soil.

Pollution of rivers and sea coasts.

For.

Extreme luxury of the apparatus.

Obviated by proper traps.

Some system of sewers for liquids is essential.

Good work should be put into the sewers.

Not profitable to utilise.

Removal of the soil by water by gravitation is the cheapest.

Against.

Purifies the water partially only, leaving the soluble impurities as before.

Irrigation.

For.

Purifies the water completely for chinking even. Cattle will prefer it to hard water. Fish live in it.

The emanations from the irrigated ground are pernicious to health.

The only crop raised, rye grass.

Hay cannot be made.

Not proved. Judgment required in selecting the ground.

Enormous crops of grass are raised, not only rye grass but meadow.

It has been and is made successfully at Worthing and Aldershott.

]0

Financially a failure to apply all the sewage of a town on one farm.

The crops all run to straw.

The expense of a wide distribution of sewage over land is too great

The land cannot take up all the sewage during a heavy flood, when there is most need to get rid of it.

During harvests where is the sewage to go to ?

Deodorizing and Against.

The value of the manure is not remunerative.

The lime process passes off water clearer than before, but not agreeable in colour or taste. It kills the fish.

The Stroud system produces a manure only after treatment with other chemicals, and is not remunerative.

The A. B. C. system.

The results in the purification of rivers are not always satisfactory.

Simple settlement tanks do not purify the water.

Deodorizing alone is no remedv for the pollution of a stream.

Filtration is of no use. Filters require so frequent changing and cleansing.

Deodorizing generally destroys the value, of the residuum as a manure.

Experience begins to show that the sewage could be more profitably expended on much larger areas, and that other than rye and meadow grass crops will take sewage with advantage if not overdone. There is everything yet to learn in irrigation farming in England.

So they would with too much, irrigation, even with pure water or a heavy rainy season.

It is then so dilute as to be harmless, and may be turned into the river.

To rye grass fields, of which it will be necessary always to have a reserve.

Precipitation.

For.

It is different in different systems.

The lime process probably gives the least valuable. At Leicester it realizes Is. per ton.

The water is clearer than that from the lime process. Manure fetches 11. 10s. per ton.

Probably gives the water off clearer than either. Manure sells at 31. 10s.

The systems are not always carried out with perfection, but hardly a case can be cited where substantial benefit has not been derived in respect of the retention of the solid matters, if proper arrangements have been made.

No, but they do arrest a great part of the heavy matter.

It is better to combine the operation with settling tanks.

In most cases filters of some sort are used in connexion with tanks. Those at Stroud do not require changing at ;il I frequently ; at Ealing they answer.

The Ash Pit and Cesspool.

Against.

Are the source of every ill that occurs in the town, filling the air with putrid gases and polluting the wells with their leakage.

The mortality in towns where these exist is high.

For.

Ashes and charcoal thrown into the cess pits, combined with frequent removal ; an economical remedy, as at Manchester. By this course the expense of carriage of much rubbish by scavengers is made less as mixed expensive, with nightsoil it can be sold and carted away at the expense of the farmers.

Explained by other causes.

Dky System.

Against.

They do not do away with the necessity for house drains or sewers for liquid refuse.

The size of the sewers is not thereby affected materially.

Moulds

The objection to this is the enormous carriage of dry earth required and the impossibility of procuring it in many cases at all.

Taylor's

This system provides that the urine runs away in the house drains. The urine contains salts which make it six times as valuable as the faeces.

For.

These are the only ones that combine least nuisance with most manurial value of the residue.

They entirely exclude nightsoil from the drain.

system.

Retains the whole of the fertilizing properties of the faeces and urine. The manure fetches a minimum price of 31. per ton.

system.

Completely meets all objections.

It produces a manure valued at 8/. per ton. There is no earth carriage.

It appears to be impossible to get rid of sewage by simply allowing it to flow into a river or the sea.

Wherever the water approaches stagnation or least velocity the sediment is sure to be thrown down, and as such places exist in all localities a nuisance is inevitable. It was hoped that by prolonging the outfall sewer for the London drainage down the river to Barking the nuisance would be removed ; but though it has benefited London the inhabitants of Barking are petitioning to have the nuisance removed from their neighbourhood. From the Standard of 3d July 1869, a report of an inquiry by Mr. Kawlinson, C.E., the Government inspector, shows that some 700,000 cubic yards of mud are estimated to have been deposited in about three years in the bight in which Barking Creek is situated since the Northern outfall works have been completed.

To remove this at Is. 9 d. per cubic yard would cost 61,250/., or 20,000?. annually.

This is the produce of sewage of 50 square miles of the northern districts, with a population of 2,300,000, the average flow for 24 hours from which being 33 million gallons.

The Thames being a tidal river has advantages over others probably, but at Liverpool, which has a similar advantage, they have adopted a system of irrigation just lately. At Southampton they have been in treaty with the A. B. C. Deodorizing Company, though they had the advantage of a tidal reach (the Soixthampton Water) to discharge into. At Worthing, which can discharge by gravitation direct into the sea, they have pumped sewage to irrigate instead.

Towns situated on rivers that are inconvenienced by the sewage discharge of towns higher up the river are empowered to issue an injunction to restrain them from damaging the river by discharge of such sewage before purification, and in almost all towns something is being done to effect an improvement.

It is true that many yet discharge their sewage into rivers or the sea ; but when the result of the various trials of different systems has shown which is the most profitable, it is unlikely that such will continue to be the case, and that towns will adopt one or other method of purification is certain.

As it may not be'generally understood in what way the question of the sewage disposal is considered to be of such vital importance to the health of the country by those skilled in the science of hygiene, I have made a few extracts from papers bearing on the subject, a list of which is given.

I have thought it might be useful also to make some extracts of the local Acts in force for the guidance of those unacquainted with the rules at present obtaining.

SEWAGE DISPOSAL.

Chapter I

The Evil of Sewage misapplied, and its proper Uses,

*A constant motion is taking place in the living animal as well as in the living plant.

In a chemical point of view animal life is distinguished from vegetable life by the uninterrupted reception of oxygen, and separation of carbonic acid and water.

During the life of plants, on the contrary, carbonic acid and water are received, and oxygen separated.

The plant consumes Carbonic acid.

„ animal ,, Vegetable tissue, sugar, gum, fat, &c. The plant consumes Ammonia. „ animal „ Albuminous substances, gelatine, &c.

During the process of decay and putrefaction the dead animals and plants are converted into carbonic acid, water, and ammonia ; and from these three products of decay are reproduced all the innumerable plants which cover the surface of the earth.

On the putrefaction of albuminous substances their nitrogen and sulphur (and phosphorus) combine with hydrogen, forming ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen (and phosphoretted hydrogen).

Ammonia is formed by nitrogen and hydrogen, by their union at the moment of liberation from a decaying albuminous body, in proportion one to three.

It is thus seen how the elements of nutrition are in a constant circulation from the dead to the living.

Dead Animals and Plants. Living Plants.

The plants are the food of man and animals, and the nitrogen obtained from the ammonia they have consumed is again put into circulation.

The solid excrements of men and animals consist for the most part of those constituents of this food which are not dissolved in the stomach. The beneficial influence of solid excrements on vegetation is principally owing to the inorganic compounds contained in them (lime, magnesia, phosphoric acid, and silicic acid).

* Stockhardt's Experimental Chemistry.

The urine contains the soluble salts originally in the food, also the nitrogen no longer necessary for vital processes.

The amount of inorganic substances in the animal excrement or manure may be accurately ascertained from the food itself which is consumed. The food has only to be burnt. Those parts of it which are insoluble correspond to the substances in the faeces, those which are soluble to those in the urine.

Nitrogen is contained in urine either in the form of urea, uric acid, or hippuric acid.

If excrement, rich in uric acid, is allowed to remain exposed to the air, it will absorb oxygen and afterwards contain oxalate of ammonia ; if the latter takes up more oxygen it passes over into carbonate of ammonia. Thus is explained why we frequently find in some sorts of guano only traces of uric acid, but instead of it large quantities of oxalates.

Guano (birds' dung) owes its efficacy to the uric acid contained in it, or if this has already undergone decomposition, to the ammoniacal salts formed, and in part also to the inorganic salts, sulphate, phosphate, and muriate of potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, &c, present.

It is obvious that carbonate of ammonia is to be regarded as the principal product of decomposition of urine. To prevent the evaporation of the volatile carbonate of ammonia gypsum or dilute sulphuric acid may be added, by which means sulphate of ammonia is formed.

* Organic Matter cast off from animal organisms is subject to very rapid chemical changes, attracting oxygen from the air, and becoming transformed in various gases, especially —

1. Sulphuretted hydrogen.

2. Sulphide of ammonium.

3. Carbonic acid.

4. and often phosphuretted hydrogen.

All of these are inimical to animal life.

The aptitude to turn into gas is increased by admixture with water, especially when exposed to the air.

In this way running streams get rid of their organic matter by oxidation at a short distance from the point of contact with the rivers.

Dr. Barker's experiment showed that —

1. Sulphuretted hydrogen produced vomiting and purging,

and that the mode of dying was by asphyxia (suspension of motion of heart), and that as small an amount as "051 per cent, produced specific symptoms.

2. Sulphide of ammonium causes vomiting but no purging,

though occasionally tenesmus. When # the dose is. large death occurs with laboured respiration. There is op-

* Thomas Hawksley, Esq., M.D. Leamington Congress Papers.

pression of the nervous system, passing into complete coma, and the condition is that of typhus fever. 3. Carbonic acid affects first the respiration ; 1 or 2 per cent, if inhaled will interfere seriously with the oxidation of the blood.

As these gases are so objectionable, it becomes necessary to use some chemical means to render them harmless if possible by . combination with some other substances.

It should be remembered that —

Phosphorus is insoluble in water.

Ammonia always otherwise in water, it cannot be solidified.

The means adopted to solidify the gas ammonia is by treating with sulphuric acid, by which the ammonia becomes a sulphate.

Any mixture of lime with ammonia (as generally found as a carbonate) tends to abstract the carbonic acid and liberate the ammonia, which soon makes itself evident by the odour.

Perchloride of iron is referred to in the experiments at Leamington, as used to precipitate the sulphuretted hydrogen.

Magnesia is referred to also as being used to precipitate phosphorus and ammonia as phosphates.

The gases from a drain will be absorbed to a great extent, if not entirely, by charcoal.

Dry earth will absorb animal refuse and prevent any smell arising, &c.

*

Now, when the food swallowed and digested has parted with its nourishment, and the refuse is cast out as no longer required, it will be evident that such matter will not be fitted for again taking into the system till it shall have gone through the regular circle of decomposition and absorption by plants ; and Dr. Richardson has shown that when any such sewage matter is again taken into the system it is liable to cause all those most fatal diseases man is afflicted with, known as cholera, &c.

Organic Poisons.

Lecture by Dr. B. W. Richardson, 25th October 1866, to the Leamington Congress, on the poison of spreading diseases : thennature and mode of distribution.

# After introducing the subject by a few remarks on the law of life and death and the causes of diseases external, &c, Dr. Richardson proceeds to show that 15 of the worst diseases man is subject to, such as cholera, smallpox, typhus, yellow and other fevers, diphtheria, ophthalmia, &c, are traceable mainly to the poisons which may pass from sewage.

1. Each disease proceeds from a specific poison, which is an

organic one.

2. The organic poisons are perfectly inodorous, and no com-

municable diseases depend upon gases of decomposition (carb. acid, sulph. hyd., ammonia, phosph. hyd., or carb. hyd.). Ihese gases arc very perceptible to the nose, but they will not produce any of the above diseases. Air containing these, however, is very deleterious to health, and even such a small proportion of sulphuretted hydrogen as I to 1,000 will kill, and the same with phosphuretted hydrogen.

3. The distinction between gases and organic poison is that

directly we remove the subject from the gas the symptoms will cease, while a person having become once affected with organic poison the symptoms will go on developing.

4. The poisons will all dry solid. If solved it has been found

that dilution to a certain extent will not produce any milder effects than the original bulk, but beyond that certain point there was no disease at all produced. This accounts for the admixture of the water of rivers destroying the effect of these poisons.

5. The poisons are carried by the vapour of the body mechani-

cally, as long as there is heat ; directly the body is dead these poisons become no longer infectious.

6. Poisons are harmless in their dry state. Exposed to the sunlight they lose their activity. Snake poison is destroyed by sunlight.

Stagnant pools become inert in the sunlight.

7. The Origin of Poisons. — They all proceed from albumen.

The action of them is this, that each particle of any one poison brought in contact either with the blood or certain secretions has the power of turning the albuminous part of the same blood into a structure like itself.

8. The mode in which poisons may be transmitted is in three

ways : —

(i.) In sewage as dry solid matter (dust) which will be swallowed.

(ii.) By the linen of diseased persons.

(iii.) In water, or in water suspended in the form of vapour.

9. The mode of commimication of poisons is different in different

clisc£is6s * for — *

(i.) Measles, scarlet fever, typhus, it is always inhaled.

(ii.) Diphtheria, glanders, ophthalmia, require direct contact.

(iii.) Smallpox may be inhaled or inoculated, (iv.) Cholera, yellow fever, &c, ague, swallowed poisons, may be called specifically sewage poisons.

10. Disposal and destruction of organic poisons:—

(i.) Ventilation and a high temperature are the best things to prevent infection ; also sunlight.

(ii ) Certain agents oxidize or destroy them, i.e., iodine, which vaporizes at 70°, and a drachm will be diffused m 24 hours, if exposed in a bottle covered at mouth with a

little muslin. _ ,

After iodine comes chlorine ; not more than two drachms should be diffused in a room 10 ft. x 10 ft. x 10 ft. ; in course of an hour the chlorine will be diffused. It should be placed in a 2 oz. bottle and allowed to diffuse.

11. When the poisons are in the fluid state, as when passing from the bowels of cholera patients, a large series of experiments points to the iodine as almost specific, which really acts as an oxydizer.

12. When the poisons are in the form of dry substances spread upon clothes, very important rules require to be observed.

Cholera has been known to be very fatal to laundresses who have the washing of patients' beddings, &c.

In cold water under 50° clothes remain quite harmless. To destroy the poison they may be thrown at once into boiling water in a cauldron, with a good shaft to the chimney to carry off the vapour ; the draught should be closed so that no one may be exposed to it.

13. Viewing the health side of the question entirely, the doctor thought that there could be no doubt but that the town that would be most happy in regard to its health would be that one wherein a water supply was derived from one source, and a drainage well flushed, but not over large, and a conduit to take as it was produced every particle of sewage clean away into the sea.