Asia, with Ethnological Appendix

Front matter

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Preface

This book, relating to Asia, forms part of a compendium of geography and travel for all quarters of the world The compendium was originally based on Yon Hellwald's comprehensive work, Die Erde vmd ihre VoVcer,

But when the task of adapting the foreign work, regarding Asia, to the requirements of English readers was undertaken, it was found necessary to enlai^e the treatment of the whole subject, and to rearrange the topics comprised therein. This was foimd to involve the composing of a new book, recasting the contents of Hellwald's work, for which due acknowledgment is made — but including also much additional matter as the result of recent research, and bringing the information up to the latest dates.

The composition was, as will be seen from the titlepage, entrusted to Mr. A. H. Eeane, who possesses special qualifications, having translated from the Glerman the whole of Hellwald's work, and having prepared ethnological appendices to several numbers of the series contained in this general compendium. Indeed Mr. Eeane's ethnological acquirements, which are of the first rank, and in which he is equalled by few, mark him as singularly fitted for this task. His wide acquaintance with physical geography, and his literary aptitude generally, will be apparent from the book itself.

5i5iia

VI PREFACE.

As Author, then, he is responsible for the contents of the book, and for the verification of the facts. On the other hand, I have, as Editor, carefully revised the whole composition throughout all the chapters of the work itself, and to that extent I fully acknowledge my responsibility.

But for the Ethnological Appendix Mr. Keane is solely responsible, and it wiU be found instructive as well as interesting. I regret that his alphabetical list of the races and languages of Asia has been unavoidably sacrificed to the exigencies of space. The list will be very full, containing 3000 entries with copious references. For the information of those who take a special interest in ethnography, however, it may be mentioned that this list, together with much additional matter, will probably soon be issued under a different form.

In the general arrangement of the chapters and of the heads in each chapter, I have taken a more particular part. It IB hoped that clearness and facility of reference wiU result from the pains which have been bestowed on this arrangement As Asia contains many diverse nations and countries, simplicity and uniformity of arrangement become peculiarly important The aim has been to present the same kind of information for each of these many nations and countries, arranged under the same heads. Hereby the student will find his studies easier than they would otherwise be, and will be enabled to compare readily the state of the several nations and countries under their different forms of civilisation. He will also have the means of immediately measuring the stage which the available information regarding them has reached under their various types of administration.

Thus Asia is divided, for the purposes of this work, into four main sections : —

PREFACE. VU

A. Westebn Asia : Muhammadan States.

B. Southern Asu : British Political System.

C. Northern Asu : Kussl^n Political System.

D. Eastern Asia : Buddhist States.

The chapters axe numbered in one series consecutively from the beginning to the end of the book. Thus Chapter I., the introduction, presents a general survey of Asia, Chapters II. to YL are comprised in Section A, Chapters VII. and VIII. in Section B, Chapters IX. to XL in Section C, and Chapters XII, to XTV. in Section D.

Then in each chapter there are the same heads as foUows: — 1. Area — Extent — Boundaries; 2. Relief of the Land ; 3. Hydrography : Bivers and Lakes ; 4. Natural and Political Divisions ; 5. Climate ; 6. Fauna and Flora; 7. Inhabitants ; 8. Topography : Chief Towns ; 9. Highways of Communication; 10. Administration; 11.. Statistics.

Thus, although the work deals with the utmost variety of conditions and of circumstances, there is symmetry in its arrangement as a volume of reference.

To the English reader a description of Asia may prove interesting by reason of the int^ests which England possesses in that quarter of the globe. The Asiatic dominions or dependencies of the British Crown contain more than 2^ millions of square miles. The people, under direct administration or political control of England, consists of 2 7 0 millions of souls, speaking at least twenty languages. - Her European troops in Asia are maintained at a strength of about 70,000 men, while her native troops are 140,000 in number, ^er ships of war stationed in Asiatic waters are about forty. She possesses 9000 miles of railway in Asia, and 20,000 miles of electric telegraph on land, besides 8000 miles of submarine cable. The capital invested by the British people in these dominions or

YUl PREFACE.

dependencies, either in State loans or in railways under State supervision, is not less than 250 millions sterling altogether. Besides this, there is a vast sum invested in private enterprises — ^agricultural, commercial, industrial — and amounting to scores of millions sterling, whereof the aggregate cannot be exactly computed The foreign trade of these dominions or dependencies amounts to 150 millions sterling in value annually, of which about half is with the United Kingdom. Apart from this, the trade of the United Kingdom with other Asiatic countries has a yearly value of 20 millions sterling.

The Asiatic dominions or dependencies of Bussia are even more vast in area, containing 6;| millions of square miles; but they have a small population, 18 millions of souls, and in other economic respects they are not comparable to the British Empire in Asia, however interesting and important they may be. Still the progress of Bussia &om the Altai Mountains, which form the southern boundary of Siberia, towards the Himalayas, which are the northern boundary of India, has been remarkable within the present generation. During the most recent years she has established a base of progress, starting from the east shore of the Caspian, towards Central Asia. With the Caspian she now possesses complete commiuiication by raiL As an inland sea the Caspian is now a Bussian lake, the maritime share which Persia once owned in it having dvrindled to insignificance.

The Asiatic interests of France are growing fSast, and her possessions in Cambodia or Camboja now contain 66,000 square miles, with a population of 750,000 souls. Besides this, she has a protectorate over the neighbouring province of Annam, with an area of 200,000 square miles and a considerable population, the number of which is not exactly known. Her dominions in this quarter, though as yet imdeveloped, are capable of indefinite expan-

FKEFACE, ix

sion — ^the soil is splendidlj fertile, and the population may mnltiplj under a civilised administration. This French jurisdiction is interposed between British India and China.

Among the comparatively novel points elucidated by thiB work, the following may be mentioned : —

The circumstances of Central Arabia, the decay of the

Wahhabi and the rise of the Shammar State ; The results of the late Russian campaign in Turkestan, . the new Eusso-Persian frontier, and the present

condition of Merv ; The orographic and lacustrine systems of Zungaria,

with the Knes of approach between the Chinese

and Russian empires in that direction ; The recent exploration in Palestine and beyond the

Jordan ; The geographical results of the late Afghan war, the

approaches to the Iranian tableland from the

Indus valley and from Turkestan ; The investigations by Prejevalsky in the basins of the

Lob-nor and the Kuku-nor; The travels by Gill, Baber, and Desgodins, on the

frontiers between Tibet, China, and Burma ; The determination of the farthest source of the

Irtish; The political and social changes in Japan.

Although the information afforded by this book may be of general assistance in mastering or elucidating some among the political problems of the time, yet the utmost care has been taken to keep the matter free from controversial elements.

It is hoped that the physical geography of Asia will be presented to the imagination of the reader more vividly than it ever has been before. The prominent features are

X PREFACE.

drawn with as much precision as possible. Such is the great Central Plateau, containing the most elevated areas to be found anywhere, walled in by mountains some of which are the loftiest yet discovered, giving birth to all the greatest rivers which flow towards the Arctic, the Pacific, the Indian Oceans, and affording a home to the nomad tribes that once ravaged the gardens of Central Asia and overran parts of Europe. Such, also, is the wondrous drainage which finds no vent towards the ocean, and is collected in inland seas, as the Caspian, the Aral, and the Siberian Balkhash, or in the lakes of "Yarkand and Tibet, the swamps of Sistan, the saline depressions of Persia, the inner waters of Asia Minor and of Palestine.

The climatic conditions are set forth and their causes indicated — the heat and moisture of the south, the prevailing drought of the west, the temperate zone in the east, the amazing rainfall, measured not by inches but by feet, on the uplands which confront the vapours surging from the Indian Ocean, the burning winds hot as the blast from a furnace, the alternations of temperature in the centre and the north ranging between the extremes of heat and cold. In fact, the main Asiatic continent presents remarkable insttmces of what has been t^med the Continental climate, which, at one season, is marked by burning heat, at another by intense frost, and which is so strange to English experience.

Some attempt is made to depict the scenery — ^the summits of Caucasus and Ararat, the brilliant colouring of Arabian rocks, the glittering snows and cloud-piercing peaks of the Himalayas, the groves and woods of Southern India or Ceylon, the teak forests of Burma, the tropical vegetation of Siam and Malacca, the majestic rivers of China, the sylvan and architectural beauties of Japan, the countless boats in Indian estuaries and Chinese

PREFACE. XI

waters, the steamers riding at anchor at Calcutta and Bombay, the fires in Mongolian prairies, the desolate lakes at alpine altitudes in mid- Asian ranges, the atmospheric gloom of some regions in Siberia, the frozen plains bordering on the Arctic Ocean.

Mention is made of the noble structures still preserved, as attesting the Asiatic genius of the past — ^the marble mausoleum at Agra, the Jama mosque of Delhi, the tomb of Tamerlane at Samarkand, the gilt pagodas of Burma and Siam, the Hindu temples in Southern India, the Lama monasteries of Tibet, the Buddhist fanes of China and Japan.

Conspicuous in the Indian landscape are the works of British engineering in railways and in canals for irrigation on the largest scale in the world To these are now added the tall chimneys of the factories worked by European machinery and appliances in the manufacturing centres of India. The steam-engine has crossed most of the classic Indian rivers, penetrated parts of the Himalayas, and invaded Baluchistan.

Nor are the art- industries to be disregarded — ^the carpets of Persia, the shawls of Kashmir, the lacquerwork of Japan, the silks of China, the enamelling and embroidery of India. While the principles of European ait are freely communicated to Asiatics, we should take care that the fresh springs of native genius are not quenched. Though perhaps inferior to Europeans in accuracy of drawing, Asiatics have a strong perception respecting vigour in outline, and a fine feeling for harmonised richness in colour.

The brute creation also deserves notice — ^the elephant of Ceylon, the tiger of Bengal, the ibex and ovis ammon of the Himalayas, the deer of India> the goat of Angora, the wild ass of Persia, the powerful horse of Turkestan, the fleet and gentle steed of Nejd, the Bactrian camel, lU PREFACE.

and the swift-footed dromedary — ^truly named the ships of the desert — ^in the basin of the Oxus and the heart of Arabia.

An account of Asia summons up the memory of the remotest past known to human history, and presents to the mind's eye the antiquities with which most parts of the Continent are bestrewn, the remnants of a bygone civilisation pertaining to ancient times or the monuments of mediaeval greatness. Such are the remains of Iconium and Balbec, of Persepolis, of Susiana, and of Ctesiphon — the rocks forming the ancient gates of Syria, and bearing memorial tablets of invaders from the Pharaohs to Napoleon III. — the Scythian cromlechs — ^the colossal bas-reliefs on the scarped side of the pass over the Indian Caucasus, — ^the sculptured caves, the rock-cut temples, the monumental mounds, — ^the ruins of Isfahan, of old Delhi, of Ayuthia in Siam, — ^the vestiges of an otherwise unknown Hindu dynasty in the upper valley of the Cambodia, and of the national deities in Japan. Such, too, are the scarcely distinguishable sites of places which were once mighty cities — of Balkh, of Merv, of Ayodhya in Northern India, and of a nameless capital near Kandahar.

The various phases of civilisation are displayed — ^the Muhammadan, whether in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Persist or Turkestan, withering the minds and eneigies of the people with a blight; the Arabian, fostering an isolated independence within the limits of an arid and inaccessible peninsula; the British, enriching a vast population materially, and striving to elevate the upper classes morally and intellectually by enlightened legislation, by honest administration, and by national education ; the Bussian, enforcing among semi-barbarous tribes that degree of order which must ultimately soften rude violence; the Chinese, compelling or encouraging the

PB£FAGS. xm

most exact and assiduous study, yet implacably hostile to real progress ; the Japanese, sweeping away ancient institutions, and imitating with sudden zeal the material improvements of Europe; the French, endeavouring by missionary e£Ebrt and by scientific exploration to sow the seeds of improvements

Then the present condition ia described of many races whose social state hardly attains even a humble d^ree of civilisation — the Bedawin plundering the traveUers in the desert; the squalid and inert Mongol, once the invader of fair domains, and still among the first of equestrians ; the aborigines dwelling amidst the malarious forests of India: the solitary hunter in Siberian wilds.

The characteristics are sketched of the nations which make up the Asiatic population of 835 millions of souls — the modem Turk, patient, much-enduring, self-sacrificing, but stolid and iacapable of mental effort ; the Armenian, quick-witted and skilful in business, heretofore wanting in the stamina which constitute national character, but now beginning to assert a claim to nationality; the Arab, devout, sedate, resolute, and independent in isolation; the Persian, gay, refined, fluent in speech, but unstable in action ; the Turkoman, ruthlessly dragging his victims into bondage; the fanatical priesthood of Islam; the highcaste £[indu, cherishing the traditions of centuries, and clinging to caste, despite the inroads of new learning ; the Indian, trained by the Western education, abandoning the ancestral £edth and fairly facing the moral or spiritual problems of the age ; the Annamese, described as merryhearted by sympathetic Frenchmen ; the Chinese, diligent and practical in trade and agriculture, assiduous in severe study, but still hating modem progress; the Japanese, eagerly opening the windows of his mind to the social ideas of Europe.

The labours of some among the most distinguished of

XIV PREFACE.

modem travellers shotdd be gratefully remembered : the Englishmen, Eawlinson, Ney Elias, Baber, Gill, Delmar Morgan, Freshfield, Bryce, Lansdell, Seebohm, Bumaby, Palgrave; the Russians, Prejevalsky, Kropotkin, Radde, Khanikoff; the Germans, Bichthofen, Schlagintweit, Hiiber, Wallin ; the Frenchmen, Hue, Gamier, Mouhot, Pallegoix, Desgodins ; the Swedish, Nordenskjold ; the Italian, Manzoni; the Dutchman, Siebold; the Himgarian, Vambery; the Americans, Schuyler, Collins, Kennan, Bush. In this difficult work, involving severe privations and distress, European ladies have home an honourable part — Lady Anne Blunt, Miss Bird, Mrs. Atkinson, Madame Ujfalvy Bourdon. The pioneers of geographical discovery in Asia have to encounter not only the savagery of Nature but also the fierceness of Man, and need the stemest resolution besides the sti£fest physical strength. Many of them have, in the service of geography, injured their health, and some of them have sacrificed their lives. But all have been supported under their load of labour by a love of natural beauty and an enthusiasm in the cause of knowledge.

Prominent among geographical explorers have been the Christian missionsories, in whom intellectual gifts and courageous resolution have been added to spiritual fervour.

Geography has ofttimes proved to be a foster-mother to the physical sciences in Asia. She has also been the handmaid to those who conduct the trigonometrical surveys, the geological investigations, the antiquarian explorations, who make the botanical collections, who manage the meteorological observatories, who follow the ethnological and philological studies.

Notwithstanding the matchless interest attaching to it as 'Hhe birthplace of mankind" and ''the cradle of civilisation," the Asia of to-day hardly presents a happy

PREFACE. XV

appearance. Her three widespread creeds — Buddhism, Brahmanism, Muhammadanism, by their effects as now prevailing — obscure the reason, damp the aspirations, and deaden the energies of the people. Weighed in the scales of modem civilisation she is found practically wanting ; viewed in the light of religion and reason she seems incapable of self-elevation. She is, in short, unable to attain moral or spiritual enlightenment by any strivings of her own, or to propel herself onward in the path of progress by spontaneous energy. Decrepitude has long been stealing over her, and old age has supervened without any future in hopefiil prospect, unless she shall be rendered amenable to external influences. One-third of her population is already subject to one or other of the European powers, and of the remainder much is dominated by European influence in many essential respects. It almost seems to be decreed that JSurope shall, in the immediate future, mould the destinies of Asia. Some Asiatic nations enjoy, indeed, a certain independence, but in practice it often degenerates into a liberty to wage internecine conflicts, to maintain an intellectual bondage, and to hold themselves sdoof from foreign culture. In two of her recent expeditions, also, China has acted without deference either to England or to Bussia. Nevertheless Europe is gradually becoming the mistress of Asia — is connected with the Asiatic continent by growing interests, and is deriving material {^vantage from this connexion. It is only by the means of such a connexion that rejuvenescence seems possible for Asiatic races. One immediate consequence is that the Christian religion is unreservedly preached in many parts of the continent. The progress of Christianity at first sight seems slow because of the vastness of the field in which its operations are conducted Actually, however, it is considerable, and in some instances rapid.

XVI PREFACE.

The advantages springing from European influence in Asia may be aptly illustrated by a summary comparison between India and China. Of the two countries China is not only the larger, but also the finer in respect to the conditions of its soil and climate, as well as the qualities of its people. Yet it has neither a railway nor an electric telegraph, nor any enlightened system of legislation and education. Its grand canals are ill repaired and imperfectly managed. Its mineral resources are undeveloped, and its foreign trade is relatively smaU. Whereas India is permeated by the railway and the telegraph, has scientifically framed laws, and a liberal system of State education. Its canals are magnificently managed, its coal-mines are worked, and its foreign trade is threefold that of China, though its population is less than that of the Chinese by one third.

After all, Asiatic progress is supremely important to the interests of mankind at large, for Asia— despite all the devastation and depopulation to which she has been subjected — still contains more than half of the himian race. Those r^ons of hers which, lying on her southern and eastern shores, have been the most readily approached by foreigners, are the most densely peopled parts of the eartL Though some Asiatic races are unimpressionable, and others almost brutish, yet many possess a lively intellect, a studious disposition, an expansive imagination, a sensitive conscience. But none of them have the mental stamina and the moral fibre which are found in Europe. For the present they all need guidance from without; with that guidance most of them are susceptible of such improvement and capable of such advancement as may give rise to boundless aspirations among all who feel the enthusiasm of humanity. They ought to receive from Europe the benefit of all that knowledge which has raised European civilisation to its

PREFACE. XVll

present height In short, Europe is incurring much responsibility in respect of Asia, and will doubtless discharge the duties arising therefrom until the Asiatic races shall, under Providence, be able to dispense with guidance and to soar aloft with their own wings.

R T.

t

SYNOPTICAL TABLE.

Chapter!.— Genebal Survey.

SECTION A.

WESTERN ASIA: MUHAMMADAN STATES.

(TURKEY IN ASIA, ARABIA, AND PERSIA.)

CHAPTER I. General Subyey

PAQB

1. Boaudaries — Extent — Area — Southern Peninsulas — Northern

and Eastern Seaboards ...... 1

2. Belief of the land : Plateaux and Highlands . .7

3. Hydrography : Rivers and Lakes — Inland and Seaward Drainage 9

4. Main Political Divisions . . . .12

5. Climate : Diminished Moisture — ^Rainfall . .14

7. Inhabitants : Social Culture — Religion .19

8. Topography: Chief Towns .24

10. Administration . .26

SECTION ▲.

WESTERN ASIA : MUHAMMADAN STATES.

(TURKEY IN ASIA, ARABIA, AND PERSIA.)

CHAPTER II. Asia Mikob

2. Relief of the Land : Taurus, Anti-Taurus, and Amanus — Passes

— Plains — Volcanic Agencies — Geological Formation . . 31

3. Hydrography : Rivers, the Eizil-Irmak, Sakaria, Choruk, Khoja-

chai, and others — Lake Tuz-gol . .35

4. Natural and Political Divisions— Islands . .36 6. Climate 89

'Alt w 3 fe?'

1^

CONTENTS. XXI

PAOB

7. Inhabitants : Torlu, Greeks, Eizil-Bashis .42

8. Topography: Smymar— Trebizond — Csesarea .48

9. Highways of Commnnication .60

CHAPTER III. Thb Euphrates and Tigris Basin

1. Boundaiies — Extent — Area . ... 52

2. Relief of the Land : The Armenian and Enrdistdn Uplands— The

Mesopotamian Lowlands .53

3. Hydrography : The Tigris and Euphrates — Lake Van . 60

4. Natural and Political Divisions: Turkish Armenia and Kur-

dist^ — Mesopotamia .64

7. Inhabitants : The Armenians, Kurds, NestorianSi and Bedouins 68

8. Topography : Erzerum — ^Van — Nineveh — Bagdad — Eerbela —

CHAPTER IV. Syria and Palestinb

2. Relief of the Land : Lebanon — Anti-Lebanon .84

3. Hydrography : Jordan — Dead Sea .86

4. Natural and Political Divisions: Gilead and Hoab-— Land of

Bashan — Trachonitis — Ala District — Plateau of Aleppo — Canaan — ^The Plain of Sharon — Galilee — Samaria — Judaea 89

6. Flora and Fauna : The Cedan of Lebanon . .94

7. Inhabitants: The Syrian Christians — Missionary Work — The

Maronites, Druses, Nusarieh, and Fellahin .96

8. Topography : Damaacu»— Aleppo— Emessa — Beyrdt— Nazareth-

Jerusalem — Hebron — Jericho . .101

CHAPTER V. Arabia

1. Boundaries— Extent— Area-Coast-line— Islands. . 109

2. Relief of the Land : Mountains— Plateaux— Lowlands— Deserts

—Volcanic Tracts .... .111

XXll CONTENTS.

PAGE

3. Hydrographj : Wadies Sirhan, Dawassir, and Er-Rumma — Coast

4. Natural and Political Divisions: Peninsula of Sinai — West

Coast (£1-Hejas, Yemen) — South Coast (Beled-Aden, Hadramaut) — Nejd (Jebel-Shammar, Wahhabi Country) — East Coast (El-Hasa, Sultanate of Om^) . . .115

5. Climate : Rainless Zone ...... 125

6. Flora and Fauna : The Horse and Camel . . .128

7. Inhabitants : Bedouin Life ..... 130

8. Topography: Mecca — Medina — Hafl — Muscat — Aden .134

10. Administration : Turkish System in Asiatic Turkey generally —

Social State— Taxation — Justice — Religion — The Ulema — Education ........ 142

11. Statistics of Turkey in Asia and Arabia : Areas and Populations —

Approximate Classification by Races and Religions — Vilayets and Separate Administrations — Towns with upwards of 4000 Inhabitants ' . . . . 148

CHAPTER VI. Persia

1. Boundaries — Extent — Area — Iranian Plateau — Coast-line —

2. Relief of the Land : Highlands— Plains— Deserts— The Kavirs 154 8. Hydrography : Inland and Seaward Drainage — ^The Atrak and

Tigand Rivers ....... 158

4. Natural and Political Divisions : Irak — Sistan — Khorasdn — The

Caspian Provinces — Urmia ..... 161

5. Climate: Rainfall— Prevailing Winds .166

6. Flora and Fauna : The Camel . . .167

7. Inhabitants : The Modem Persian . . .169

8. Topography: TehrAn — Kum — Isfahin — Shiraz — Persepolis —

Mashhad—Keldt— Tabriz— Seaports . . .173

10. Administration : Social State— Army— Education . .182

11. Statistics: Areas and Populations — Approximate Classification

by Races and Religions— Memlekets (Provinces)- Towns with upwards of 7000 Inhabitants— Miscellaneous . . .184

CONTENTS. xxiii

SECTION B.

SOUTHERN ASIA : BRITISH POLITICAL SYSTEM.

CHAPTER TIL Afghanistan and Baluchistan (EAbul and EelAt).

PACK

2. Relief of the Land: Hindn-Eosh — ParopamiBUS— Sufed-k6h—

Snliman Mountains— Hala and Coast Ranges— Deserts . .188

3. Hydrography: Inland and Seaward Drainage— The Hari-nid—

Helmand and Edbul Basins ..... 196

4. Natural and Political Divisions: Wakhan — Badakhshan —

Afghan Turkestin- Afghanistan Proper— Eafirist&n—Chitral —Swat— Baluchistan— Eelat—Makrdn . .198

5. Climate: Sand-storms ...... 206

6. Flora and Fauna : The Earez Irrigation System — The Uromastix

7. Inhabitants : The Afghans — ^The Brahuis, Baluchis, and Liiri . 210

8. Topography: Ehulm — ^Mazari-i-Sherif- Balkh — Herat — Eanda-

har- Edbul 216

9. Highways of Communicatioh : Passes .... 224

10. Administration under the Afghans and the BalucMs . 227

11. Statistics: Areas and Populations — Approximate Classification by

Races and Religions — Chief Towns — Distances . . 228

CHAPTER Vm.

The Indian Empire.

2* Relief of the Land : The Himalayas — Plateau of the Deccan — The Mountains of the Yindhyas, the Satpura, the Qhats, the Nilgiris, the Aravalli . . . . .281

8. Hydrography: The Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Eistna, Nerbadda, and Tapti Rivers . . .289

4. Natural and Political Divisions : Eashmir and Jammu — Nepal

— Sikkim — Bhutan — The Panjab — Sind — Rajputana — Central India Agency — North-West Provinces — Behar — Bengal — Assam — British Burma — ^The Central Provinces — ^The Nizam's Dominions — Madras Presidency — Mysoro — Eurg — Travancore — Bombay Presidency — Gujarat — ^The Deccan and Eonkan — The French and Portuguese Possessions — Ceylon, and other Islands . 249

5. Climate: Rainfall. . . .279

XXIV CONTENTS.

PAGE

6. Flora and Fauna : Tea and Ck>ffee Plantations . . .280

7. Inhabitants: Hindus, Dravidians, Kolarians, and Tibeto-Bur-

mans — Caste — Religious Sects — The Kashmiris— The Pai\jdbi Hindus and Sikhs — The Assamese — ^The Talaings and Karens — The Gonds and Bhils— The Nilgiri Hill Tribes— The Parsis— The Indian Muhammadans — The English and Eurasians . 284

8. Topography: Srinagar — Lahore — ^Delhi — Karachi — Agra — Cawn-

pore — Lucknow — Allahabad — Benares — Patna — Murshedabad — Dacca — Calcutta — Jaganath — Rangun — Moulmain — Prome — Nagpur — Jabalpur — Bhopal — Indore — Gwalior — Jyepur — Udeypur — Madras — Bellaiy — Trichinopoly — ^Madura — ^Tanjore — Calicut — Mysore — Seringapatam — Bangalore — Hyderabad — • Secanderabad — Bombay— Ahmadabad — Baroda — Surat — Poona — Sholapur — Byapur— Satara — Ahmaduagar . . . 308

9. Highways of Communication : Canals — Roads — Railways . 329

10. Administration : The Native States — Social Progress under British

Rule— Education . . .383

11. Statistics : Areas and Populations — Chief Feudatory States-

British Political System — Towns with upwards of 20,000 Inhabitants — Population classed according to Races and Religions— Chief River Basins — Canals— Railways — Finance — Army — Occupations — Education — Literature — Postal Service — Trade and Shipping — Miscellaneous ..... 339

8BGTI0N C.

NORTHERN ASIA : RUSSIAN POLITICAL SYSTEM.

CHAPTER IX.

Caucasia.

2. Relief of the Land : The Great and Little Caucasus— Armenian

Plateau — Ararat and Ala-goz ..... 847

3. Hydrography : The Kalaus, Terek, Kuma, Ingur, Rion, Kura,

and Aros Rivers — Lake Gok-cha .... 355

4. Natural and Political Divisions: Cis-Caucasia— The Northern

Steppes and Slopes of the Caucasus ; Trans-Caucasia— Colchis ; Georgia ; Russian Armenia ..... 360

5. aimate : Rainfall . 366

7. Inhabitants: Varied Ethnical and Linguistic Elements — ^Tabulated

Scheme of the Caucasian Aborigines— The Georgians, Mingrelians, Imerians, Circassians, Abkhasians, Chechenzes, Le^ians. Osses : Non-Caucasian Intruding Races . . . .870

CONTENTS. XXV

PAOB

8. Topography: Stavropol— Vladikavkaz— Derbent— Baku— Poti—

Tifl|8 — Kara — Batum — Erivan — ^Alezandrapol — Shuaha — Nakhichevan ....... S78

9. Highvays of Commxinication ..... 886

Administrative Divisions ..... 886