The art of ballet

Preface

SOME may possibly wonder to find here no record of Ballet in Italy, or at the Opera Houses of Madrid, Lisbon, Vienna, Buda-Pest, Berlin, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Warsaw, or Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg), not to speak of the United States and South America. This, however, would be to miss somewhat the author's purpose, which is not to trace the growth of Ballet in every capital where it has been seen. To do so effectively were hardly possible in a single volume. A whole book might well be devoted to the history of the art in Italy alone, herein only touched upon as it came to have vital influence on France and England in the nineteenth century. We have already had numerous volumes dealing with Russian Ballet ; and since the ground has been extensively enough surveyed in that direction there could be no particular advantage in devoting more space to the subject than is already given to it in this work, the purpose of which only is to present — as far as possible from contemporary sources — some leading phases of the history of the modern Art of Ballet as seen more particularly in France and England.

A brief series of biographical essays " Cameos of the Dance," by the same writer, was published in The WhiteJuxll Review in 1909 ; various articles on the subject also being contributed to The Evening News, Lady's Pictorial, Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, Pall Mall Gazette and other London journals during 1910 and 1911 ; and a series of " Sketches of the Dance and Ballet," coming from the same hand, appeared in The Dancing Times, 1912, 1913 and

1914. They were based on portions of the manuscript of the present work which, begun some years ago by way of pastime, and written during the scant leisure of a crowded business life, was completed at the pubUsher's request, and was — save for a few brief insertions in the proofs — ready, and announced for publication before the Great War began in August 1914.

The preparation of this book has involved the marshalUng of a vast array of facts and dates, the delving into and comparison of some three hundred or more ancient and modern volumes on dancing and on theatrical and operatic history, the study of scores of old newspaper-files and longforgotten theatrical " repositories " and souvenirs. Error is always possible in spite of care, and if it should have happened here the writer will be grateful for correction. In covering so wide a field a full bibliography becomes impossible from limits of space ; but to those interested the following Ust of leading authorities — supplemented by those referred to in the text — may be of service. " La Danse Grecque Antique," by M. Emmanuel ; " Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire," by L. Friedlander ; " Dramatic Traditions of the Dark Ages," by Joseph S. Tunison (University of Chicago Press) ; " Orchesographie," by Thoinot Arbeau (1588); "Des Ballets Anciens et Modernes," by Pere Menestrier (1682) ; " La Danse Antique et Moderne," by De Cahuzac (1754) ; " The Code of Terpsichore," by Carlo Blasis (1823) ; " Dictionnaire de la Danse," by G. Desrat (1895) ; " Dancing in all Ages," by Edward Scott (1899) ; " Histoire de la Danse," by F. de Menil (1905) ; and " The Dance: Its Place in Art and Life," by T. and M. W. Kinney (1914).

Book I. The First Era Chapter Paqe

OVERTURE : ON TflE ART OF BALLET 15

I. A DISTINCTION, AND SOME DIFFERENCES 21

n. EGYPT 25

III. GREECE 32

IV. MIME AND PANTOMIME : ROME, HIPPO-

DROME— OBSCURITY 41

V. CHURCH THUNDER AND CHURCH COM- PLAISANCE 47 VI. A BANQUET-BALL OF 1489 : AND THE

BALLET COMIQUE DE LA PEINE, 1581 53

Vn. THOINOT ARBEAU'S " ORCHESO-

Vin. SCENIC EFFECT \ THE ENGLISH MASQUE

IX. BALLET ON THE MOVE 83

X. COURT BALLETS ABROAD: 1609-1650 88

XI. THE TURNING POINT : '" LE ROI SOLEIL AND HIS ACADEMY OF

Book II. The Second Era

Xn. SOME EARLY STARS AND BALLETS 109

XIII. " PANTOMIME " AT SCEAUX, AND MLLE.

PREVOT 113

XrV. ITALIAN COMEDY, AND THE " THEATRES

OF THE fair" 119

XV. WATTE AU'S DEBT TO THE STAGE 1 30

CONTENTS

CHAPTBR PAOB

XVI. " THE SPECTATOR " AND MR. WEAVER 142 XVII. A FRENCH DANCER IN EIGHTEENTH- CENTURY LONDON 149 XVIII. LA BELLE CAMARGO, 1710-1770 156 XIX. " THE HOUSE OF VESTRIS " 163 XX. JEAN GEORGES NOVERRE 171 XXI. GUIMARD THE GRAND 179 XXII. DESPREAUX, POET, " MAITRE," AND

" HUSBAND OF GUIMARD " 195

XXIII. A century's CLOSE 201

BOOK III. TEE MODERN ERA XXIV. the early NINETEENTH CENTURY 207

XXV. CARLO BLASIS, A LEADER OF THE

MODERN SCHOOL 213

XXVI. THE " PAS DE QUATRE " \ I. MARIE

TAGLIONI. (" SYLPHIDE '') 223

XXVII. THE " PAS DE QUATRE " '. II. CARLOTTA

GRISI. C GISELLE ") 234

XXVIII. THE " PAS DE QUATRE " : III. FANNY

CERITO. (" ONDINE ") 240

XXIX. THE " PAS DE QUATRE " '. IV. LUCILE

GRAHN. (" EOLINE ") 244

XXX. THE DECLINE AND REVIVAL 248

XXXI. THE ALHAMBRA 1854 TO 1903 252

XXXII. THE ALHAMBRA 1904 TO 1913 269

XXXIII. THE EMPIRE THEATRE 1884 TO 1906 276

XXXIV. THE EMPIRE THEATRE 1907 TO 1914 294 XXXV. FINALE, THE RUSSIANS AND — THE

FUTURE 307

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ADOLF BOLJI IN " CARNIVAL " Frontispiece

AN EGYPTIAN MALE DANCER Facing page 30

From a Theian, fresco

EGYPTIAN DANCING GIRLS „ 30

From a mural painting in the British Museum A GREEK FUNERAL DANCE „ 30

From a coloured plaqiie in the Louvre

STAGE EFFECT IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY „ 56

A scene from the "Ballet Comique de la Royne," hy Baltagar de

Beavjoyeux, 1581

STAGE EFFECT IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY „ 88

From a coloured engraving of a scene frovi " Circe," 1694

THE DUCHESSE DU MAINE „ 114

THE DEPARTURE OF THE ITALIAN COMEDIANS, 1697 „ 128

From an engraving by L. Jacob of Watteau's picture

PIERROT AND ARLEQUIN, IN THE EARLY

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY „ 128

From Riccoboni's " Histoire du Theatre Italien"

L' AMOUR AU THEATRE ITALIEN „ 132

From the Julienne engravings from Watteau, British Museum

L' AMOUR AU THEATRE FRANCAIS „ 132

From the Julienne engravings from Watteau, British Mmeum

LE CONCERT „ 136

From the fainting by Watteau, Wallace Collection

LA LECON DE MUSIQUE „ 136

trom, the painting by Watteau, Wallace Collection

LES PLAISIRS DU BAL „ 138

From the Julienne engravings from Watteau, British Museum MLLE. DESMARES EN HABIT DE PELERINE „ 140

From the Julienne engravings from Watteau, British Muse^im

From a photograph hy E. Alinariof Watteau's painting in the Louvre

M^RIE SALLE „ 150

From an engraving by Petit, after a picture by Fenouil 11

12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

M. BALLON AND MLLE. PREVOT Facing page 160

From an old print

CAMARGO „ 160

From, the painting ly Lancret in the Wallace Collection

GAETAN VESTRIS „ 166

From an old print

JEAN GEORGES NOVERRE „ 174

From an old engraving

MADELEINE GUIMARD „ 192

From the painting by Fragonard

FANNY ELSSLER „ 210

From an old engraving

CARLOTTA GRISI „ 210

From a coloured lithograph

CARLO BLASIS „ 218

From a lithograph

From a lithograph dated 1833

THE PAS DE QUATRE OF 1845 „ 228

FANNY CERITO AND ST. LEON „ 242

LUCILLE GRAHN AND PERROT „ 242

MLLE. PALLADINO IN " NINA " AT THE ALHAMBRA „ 266

Frmn a pihotograph

MLLE. BRITTA „ 266

MME. GUERRERO „ 274

MLLE. LEONORA „ 274

MLLE. ADELINE GENEE „ 292

MME. LYDIA KYASHT „ 304

MISS PHYLLIS BEDELLS „ 304

MISS ISADORA DUNCAN „ 314

MME. KARSAVINA AND M. ADOLF BOLM IN

" L'OISEAU DE FEU " „ 322

Book I: The First Era Overtuee

ON THE ART OF BALLET

THEKE may be some who could not agree that Ballet is an " art," or even that it has, or ever had, any special charm or historic interest. The charm — as in the case of any other art — ^will probably always remain rather a matter of individual opinion ; the historic interest is merely a matter of fact.

No man can hope for agreement with his fellows in all things. The world were flat if it could be so. He may hector, and not convince ; he may cajole and not convert ; he may tell the simple truth in simple speech and still be misunderstood. So many of his partners in the dance of life speak in different tongues ; or, speaking the same, use words and phrases more familiar to them than to himself.

In going to a foreign land we change our currency ; but it is hardly to be accounted spurious because it is not as ours. There may be something to be said for the variety ; and, also, there may be some common basis of value which can be accepted readily by both. A world-currency has not yet arrived. In opinion it is much the same.

But the sense of " fair play " is so admirable, and so truly British a characteristic, that one may usually rely on it for a considerate hearing. Possible dissentients may be the more inclined to grant this if they are informed at the outset that this book has no specially persuasive purpose, and that I am content that it should be mainly accounted a record of fact.

One of the facts which it chronicles is that Ballet, whether an " art " or not, has existed, in some form or another, for about two thousand years. An interest which can show so long a record may yet not be of such surpassing importance, let us say, as Statecraft or Religion ; but one which has thus long and widely appealed to the aesthetic sense of mankind can hardly be considered worthless. It were a vast and complex matter to decide the relative values of the various " arts," and, certainly this book is no endeavour to pronounce thereon, nor to persuade any that Ballet is the greatest, though it is unquestionably one of the oldest of the arts. But it will suffice to offer the opinion that, whether it has reached its highest level or not as yet Ballet is an art in itself ; one that in the past has had so many judicious and sympathetic exponents, and has so long a record of existence, that there is really some justification for the expenditure of casual leisure by any who cares to play the chronicler or to read such chronicle.

This much said, before setting out to travel the road of the past, let us for a moment reconsider another fact, namely, that we have in London two theatres where for about a quarter of a century Ballet was the main attraction. The fact is unique in the annals of the British stage.

Ballets have been produced elsewhere occasionally. We have seen operas, pantomimes, burlesques, of which they formed a part. At earlier periods — as in the 'forties of last century — ^they have also been seen as separate items in the programme of an operatic season ; and there has been a quite remarkable revival of interest during the past few years. But in all the history of the stage there was never before a time when it could be said that for such a period not one

OVERTURE 17

but two theatrical houses in London continuously ofiered this kind of entertainment as their chief attraction.

It has to be remembered that this sustained existence of Ballet in England has been, as in the case of all " legitimate drama," without State aid such as it has received in Milan, Rome, Naples, Paris, Vienna, Petrograd, Copenhagen, and elsewhere on the Continent, where the physical advantages of dancing and the artistic value of Ballet are fully appreciated. The arts must flourish haphazard here ! We have no national conservatoire in which this art of Ballet is taught as it is abroad. Consequently it has been less generally understood ; and, being so, has had to exist in face of considerable prejudice.

Some critics profess to despise it because it ignores the spoken word. Some have decried it because of the presence of dancing. Some will not admit that it is worthy to be called an art at all, and there are possibly still some primly primitive people who pretend to view with moral pain the existence of any such entertainment. They may patronise a theatre or tolerate an actor or actress — but a Ballet or a Ballet-Dancer !

The misunderstanding of the aims and possibilities of the Art of Ballet, as seen at its best, is to be regretted.

Not for such critics are the music of moving lines, the modulating harmonies of colour, the subtleties of mimic expression, nor all the wealth of historic associations and romantic charm which a knowledge of its past recalls.

Austere critics would do well, when deprecating Ballet, to remember that many others have found it, as Colley Cibber regretfully admitted it was found in his time : "a pleasing and rational entertainment."

That it is " pleasing " many know from witnessing some of the best of modern examples. As to whether it can be considered " rational " depends so much on the kind of meaning that may be given to that word. All rational people speak in prose ; constantly to speak in verse might be considered quite irrational. But are we to banish poetry from the world because it is not the common form of speech ?

Some people might find it quite irrational to sit in a theatre and laugh or weep at the imaginary joys or woes of imaginary characters impersonated by people who are not seriously concerned therewith, and with whom, personally, we are not at all concerned.

It might be well considered irrational to be moved by any " concord of sweet sounds," at least in the shape of " opera " ; or to be enspelled by the charm of a statue or a painting, or by the wizardry of any form of art ; for once it is questioned whether it be " rational," there need be no end to dispute ; and one remembers how poor Tolstoy fared in essaying to decide: " What is Art ? "

That of Ballet surely is no less rational than Poetry, than Drama, than Music, Sculpture, Painting — all of which exist by their conventions, all of which in principle it employs ; to all of which it is akin. It is not less an art ; and when looking at a modern ballet we can hardly fail to consider the long train of reasoned thought and of artistic tradition that lie beyond the entertainment that we see to-day.

What is it that we see ? An orchestra of dancers who are also mimes, who represent — one should rather say, realise — the imaginative creations of an author, or a number of authors working harmoniously together, in terms of rhythmic movement and dramatic expression, with the aid also of colour and music and sound.

Every one of these dancers has had to undergo a special and arduous training, the traditions of which reach back through centuries till lost in time's obscurity.

Each has an allotted place at any given moment in the general scheme. Every grouping and dispersal of a group — like the formation and modulation of chords in music — is part of an ordered plan.

OVERTURE 19

Every step of every dancer, every gesture, every phrase of music, is composed or selected to express particular ideas or series of ideas ; every colour and each change of tone in the whole symphony of hues has been appraised. Not a thing that happens is haphazard.

It is probably by reason of the number of people that must be employed, and the labour entailed before a successful result can be achieved, and on account of the difficulties and risks attendant on its production, that we have had so few theatres devoted to an art so thoroughly appreciated abroad, not only as one of ancient institution, but as one that still offers wide scope for the creative genius of poet, artist and musician, apart from the interpretative abilities of dancer and of mime.

Chapter I A Distinction, And Some Differences

THE chief elements of Ballet as seen to-day are — dancing, miming, music and scenic effect, including of course in this last the costumes and colour-schemes, as well as the actual " scenery " and lighting.

It is in the proper harmonising of these elements that the true art of Ballet-composition, or, as it is called, " choreography," consists. Each has its individual history, and all have been combined in varying proportions at various periods. But it is only in the past hundred and fifty years or so that they have been harmoniously blended in the increasing richness of their development to give us this separate, protean and beautiful art — the Ballet of the Theatre.

These four elements are the material of which Ballet is composed, and the result may be judged by their balance.

We are to think not of the worst examples that have been, but of the best, and of those that yet might be.

Most of the older writers on dancing speak of almost all concerted dances as ballets and refer to the " ballets " of the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Romans. The Abbe Mencstrier, however, writing in the seventeenth century, wisely observed the distinction between dances that are only " dances," and those that approximate to " ballet."

It should be borne in mind that it is possible to dance and not represent an idea save that of dancing, as when a child dances for joy, not in order to represent the joy oj another. That is the province of the Mime. It is equally possible to mimic without dancing.

The best ballet-dancer is one who has intelligence and training to do both, whose dancing and mimicry are interpretative.

Speaking of certain Egyptian and Greek figure-dances and the approach of some of them to the Ballet as he knew it towards the end of the seventeenth century, Menestrier wrote : " J^appelle ces Danses Ballets farce qiielles n'etoient pas de simples Danses comme les autres, mais des Representations ingenieuses, des niouvements du Ciel et des Planetes, et des evolutions du labyrinth dont Thesee sortit." That is a distinction to be remembered by any who may look on the Art of Ballet as simply — dancing.

It is necessary to-day to make another distinction, that between " ballet," and " the ballet of the theatre." In a sense the Hindus, the Eg}^tians, the Greeks, the Romans, indeed all peoples in past ages have had ballets ; that is, dances which were " representations ingenieuses" which represented an idea or told a story.

There have been entertainments, too, of which dancing formed a considerable part — such as our English " masques," which, contemporaneously, were often spoken of as " ballets."

But though they may for convenience have been so called, they were never more than partly aldn with the ballet of the theatre as we see it to-day. They never exhibited that balance of subordinated and developed arts which the best examples of later times have shown ; and were not seen in the public theatre, as a form of dramatic entertainment apart from others.

One has only to consider for an instant what were the musical and scenic resources of the Greek and Roman stage, and compare them with the resources of modern orchestration

A DISTINCTION 23

and scenic effect to realise the difference between antique " ballet " and that of to-day.

Setting aside this difference, which arises from the development of the several elements through the centuries, one may find many an ancient definition of " ballet " that appears apt enough to-day, for the difference is not so much one of principle as this of resources.

Athenaeus, a second-century Greek critic, declared : " Ballet is an imitation of things said and sung," and Lucian, that — " It is by the gesture, movements and cadences that this imitation or representation is made up, as the song is made up by the inflections of the voice." This is a happy illustration. Inflections might well be described as " gestures " of the voice.

Menestrier (who, besides writing an exceedingly entertaining history of Ballet, also wrote extensively on Heraldry, and was author of several solid historical works as well as numerous poems and libretti) has said : " Ballet is an imitation like the other arts, and that much has in common with them. The difference is, that while the other arts only imitate certain things, as painting, which expresses the shape, colour, arrangement and disposition of things, Ballet expresses the movement which Painting and Sculpture could not express, and by these movements can represent the nature of things, and those characteristics of the soul which only can find expression by such movements. This imitation is achieved by the movements of the body, which are the interpreters of the passions and of the inmost feelings. And even as the body has various parts composing a whole and making a beautiful harmony, one uses instruments and their accord, to regulate those movements which express the effect of the passions of the soul."

These definitions have decided value, but hardly quite meet the case of modern Ballet.

Noverre, Blasis, Gardel, and other of the older wmtres de ballet, have told us in several charming books, essays, letters, dialogues and libretti, much as to what Ballet can and should be, but yet leave something to seek in the matter of brief yet comprehensive definition.

It is with some hesitancy, therefore, that I venture, before talking of its history, to suggest as a simple definition that : " a ballet is a series of solo and concerted dances with mimetic actions, accompanied by music and scenic accessories, telling a story."

It is by reason of this definition that I propose to pass somewhat lightly over the early dawn of Ballet, or rather of its earliest elements, the dance and miming ; and that I propose to deal more fully with the period after the advent of Louis Quatorze — in France and in England — which saw the development of the Ballet du Theatre.

There have, of course, been modern ballets that did not tell a story. But the true Ballet of the theatre should.

Such have been the best of those of Noverre, of Blasis, of Perrot, Nuittier, Theophile Gautier, and of later composers of ballet like Taglioni, Manzotti, Coppi, Mme. Lanner, Wilhelm, Curti, Fokine, and, indeed, all the best ballets of later years ; and such will the best always be.

Chapter II Egypt

THE origin of the drama is hardly to be reckoned among the historic mysteries. By serious triflers debate might be held as to what should be considered the first dramatic representation and when it actually took place.

Some five centuries before the Christian era the first plays of which scholarship has taken note were performed at Athens, those of Thespis, forerunner of the first great dramatists of the world — .^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.

For convenience the origin of Western drama may be dated from Thespis because it seems first to have assumed then a definite form. That is not its actual origin any more than the origin of any human being is to be dated from its birth. As a possibility it may be said to have existed always. Even Chronology has its limitations, and preceding any given event there must have existed principles or tendencies.

When it is said, therefore, that the origin of the Drama is not an historic mystery it is because we are not very much in the dark as to when it began to assume a somewhat definite form ; and, moreover, we can be fairly clear as to what must have preceded it. There seems rather more than a probability that the Drama derived its existence from the Poet, in his capacity as a Narrator.

For some hundreds of years the Drama has been chiefly a representation of character and events, whether real or fictitious. In its earliest forms it was mainly descriptive. It would seem to be the natural order of things that from mere description there should arise in time — possibly from a halfconscious feeling of the need of emphasis, of a desire to impress the hearers — the attempt to illustrate or to represent the scenes or actions described. The mere repetition of any story seems to tend towards that. Have we not observed that no " fish " story is ever quite complete — if not convincing — without histrionic illustrations ?

Though in India and China, with their more ancient civilisation, the chronologic origin of the Drama might be more remotely placed, it is probable that in the Homeric bard and the Homeric audience, should be sought the true beginning of the Western theatre ; while, all the world over, the evolution of the dramatic form has probably been much the same — • namely, a gradual transition from poetic narration to imitative representation. Thus at the back of the Drama is probably the Poet. Beside the Poet, too, is often the Priest.

Greek tragedy is usually said to have had a purely " religious " origin, and certainly it was from early times employed for the purposes of, or in the service of. Religion ; but it would, one feels, be rather truer to presume its actual origin to be purely secular, and to be found in the Poet making his appeal to an ordinary audience, in a word, to the People, while sometimes under the patronage of priestly and ruling classes.

When, however, we come to consider the origin of the Dance — first and most important of the " four elements " of Ballet — we are forced to the conclusion that, even though we are on more imcertain ground, it must, nevertheless, be far older than the Drama. Why this should be so, even though we have no approximate date to go upon as in the case of the Thespian theatre, is not difiicult to see.

The Drama evolved from, and has always depended on, the faculty of speech, and on the growth of a language. A copious vocabulary and flexibility of verbal expression are not

EGYPT 27

exactly characteristics of the primitive races ; and, without both, the Drama, as we have known it for some centuries, could not have existed.

But the Dance (with mimicry, which has always followed close upon its heels) has no need of words, and is itself a kind of speech, in which the whole body is used as a means of expression.

We are none of us old enough to remember, and there is consequently no need to be dogmatic and assert that the Dance actually did precede speech ; but it is far from improbable that it could have done ; and while one shudders to think of the ardent danse tourbillon our Blother Earth must have danced from the moment of her birth, it is perhaps more amusing — and yet not wholly frivolous — to contemplate a possible origin of the Dance in the sport some Simian ancestors may have found in rhythmically swaying on the flexile branches of some primeval tree, before they had acquired a vocabulary sufficiently copious for the analysis of their sensations.

Seriously, however, and just because it has a rhythmic basis, dancing in some form is among the earliest instincts of mankind, even as it is of children. In all climes, at all periods, men and women have danced ; and its origin is lost in the mists of prehistoric years. Non-civilised races still existent may ofier evidence as to stages in its evolution ; but even among the more primitive races, dancing seems to have some definiteness of form, marking a heritage of long practice.

From some earliest, uncouth leapings and gestures of savage or half savage tribes (the effect of mere exuberant physical energy) may have grown the idea of thus expressing joy and thankfulness ; for joy, not sorrow, one feels must surely have been always the first inspirer of the Dance ; and possibly a victory over an enemy, or gratitude for a full harvest may have come to be first the inspiration, and then the excuse for repeating such manifestations.

Repetition of an act tends to create a habit, and what may be at first apparently a spontaneous experiment grows by repetition into a cult, with set form and ritual.

The ritual of the Dance seems to be as ancient as the stars, in representing the movements of which, it is supposed by some to have had its origin in Egypt over two thousand years ago. Nowhere is it found without form. All must be done in a certain way, according to the traditions of the locality in which the dance is seen, or according to some wider tradition. Always it has a ritual of its own, but also with religious ritual the origin of the Dance — as also of the Drama — appears in some mysterious manner to be upbound.

Of all the records that we have of dancing, the earliest are, apparently, those of Eg}'pt. Its origin is not there ; it must be older ; but we know at least that the Egyptians were among the first people with a civilisation that encouraged dancing.

One of the finest among modern historians of the art, divides dancing, for convenience in tracing its evolution, into " sacred " and " profane " ; that is, the Dance forming, as so often it did in ancient times, part of a religious ceremonial, and that which in any other of its forms was merely a pleasure of the people. For our purpose in tracing the growth of Ballet, however, it would seem advisable to divide the Dance yet further, into " sacred," " secular," and " theatrical."