Art in theory : an introduction to the study of comparative æsthetics

Front matter

tt^i fti

*f'-LiJ

•» mm

Preface

A PROMINENT Review, in noticing the first book published of this series, entitled " Poetry as a Representative Art," took the author to task, apparently, for not following exclusively that which he by no means ignored, — the prevailing and popular method of Historic Criticism. Had the critic read the book more carefully, he would have had no difficulty in detecting in the course criticized the result of a deliberate purpose. That historic criticism, in the last few decades, has been of vast benefit to truth and to thought of every kind, no one can deny. But it has its limits ; and there is no region in which, if applied exclusively, it is fitted to do more harm than in that of aesthetics. Holding that all the products of the arts and all the changes in their general conditions and effects are subject to the laws of development, two of its most prominent propositions are : first, that art is the expression of the spirit of the age in which it appears ; and, second, that all art, for this reason, is of interest to the artist. Neither proposition is true. If there be anything which, very often, the higher arts are distinctly not, it is the expression of the spirit of their age. Greek architecture of the fourth century before Christ, and Gothic of the thirteenth after him, may have been this ; although even they were developments of what had been originated long before. But all the unmodified examples of Greek or Gothic

IV PREFACE.

architecture produced since then — and at certain periods they have abounded to the exclusion of almost every other style of building — have been expressions not of the age in which they were produced, but of that long past age in which their models were produced. The same in principle is true in all the arts. The forms most prevalent in poetry, painting, sculpture, even in music, are always more or less traditional, determined, that is, by the artists of the past. As, in its nature, the traditional is not essentially different from the historic, it is doubtful whether these conditions will not continue in the direct degree in which, in the study of art, this latter is made to dominate ; and it is not at all doubtful whether the criticism calling itself historic is not belying its title when, in a proposition such as has just been stated, it ignores the historic fact that forms, which logically ought to develop according to the spirit of an age, very often, owing to a servitude to conventionality that interferes with a free expression of originality, do not so develop.

If this first proposition fall to the ground, of course the second must. But there are other reasons why this must be the case. The claim of the historian that all art is of interest and deserving of study is not true as applied to the artist as an artist. To him only such art is of interest as has attained a certain high level of excellence, which it is the object of criticism to discover, and which excellence, as we know, has appeared only at certain favored periods. It is worth while to notice, too, as just suggested above, that these periods are not necessarily identical with those that are under the influence of the historic spirit. The tendency of this, unless counterbalanced, is to direct attention to forms as forms, not to these as expressions of spirit ; or, if so, only of the spirit

PREFACE. V

of the past. The practical results of such a tendency are, in the first place, as already intimated, imitation, and, in the second place, degeneracy. The nature of the mind is such that it must vary somewhat that which it imitates ; and if its variations be not wrought in accordance with the principles underlying the first production of the imitated form, the original proportions of the different parts of this as related to one another are not preserved, and the whole is distorted. For this reason, it is fully as important— to say no more — for the artist to continue to work in accordance with the methods of the great masters as to continue to produce the exact kind of work that they did. And if we inquire into these methods, we shall find that, in art as in religion, philosophy, and science, the one fact which distinguishes not only such characters as Socrates, Aristotle, Confucius, Gautama, Paul, Copernicus, and Newton, but also Raphael, Angelo, Titian, Shakespeare, Goethe, Beethoven, and Wagner, is that they have resisted the influences of traditionalism sufficiently, at least, to be moved as much from within as from without ; as much by their own feeling and thinking as by those of others who have preceded them, and whose works surround them ; as much, therefore, by that which results from a psychologic method — for we must not forget that there is always a necessary connection between one's method of studying art and of practising it — as by that which follows an historic. In an age when the influence of the latter is so potent that not one in ten seems to be able to detect, even in his own conceptions, the essential differences that separate archeology from art, it is well to have emphasized again, as is done in every period when production is at its best, the importance of the former method.

VI PREFACE.

So much in explanation of the chief endeavor of this book, which is to get back to the first principles of our subject as revealed in the way in which they manifest themselves in the conditions of mind as related to those of matter.

No comment seems to be required here with reference to the somewhat extended consideration in this volume of the different theories concerning beauty ; or with reference to the way in which the conclusion derived from them has been made to meet the prominent requirements of them all ; as well as to explain certain of the characteristics of beauty, like complexity, unity, and variety, and certain also of its effects, both physiological and psychical. Everybody will recognize that the treatment of these subjects was simply essential to the completeness of the discussion in hand.

A few words, however, may be in place in order to make more clear the reason for the use of the term representative to express the general effect produced by all the art-forms. This term is not a new one, though it has not previously been applied without more limitation. Nor has it been selected in ignorance of the distinction which certain English critics have made between what they call the representative and the presentative arts ; but in the belief that this distinction springs from misapprehension, and in its results involves that tendency to error to which misapprehension always leads. The way in which the term came to be chosen was as follows. In order to simplify the task of art-criticism, it seemed important to search for a single word expressive of an effect, the presence or absence of which in any work should determine the presence or absence in it of artistic excellence. This word representative, without any distortion of its most ordinary mean-

PREFACE. vii

ings, was found to meet the requirements. It was found, moreover, that it could be applied to all the art-forms considered in either of the two relations which exhaust all their possibilities ; considered, in other words, either as expressive of thought and feeling in the mind of the artist, or as reproducing by way of imitation things heard or seen in the external world. To illustrate this — and from an art, too, which we are told is merely presentative — let one be listening to an opera of Beethoven or Wagner, and desirous of determining the quality of the music as conditioned by its power of expression — how can he do this ? — In no way better than by asking: first, what phase of feeling is the music intended to represent ; and, second, does it represent what is intended. With equal success, he can use the same questions with reference to the story told in a ballad, the characters delineated in a drama, the events depicted in a painting, the ideal typified in a statue, the design embodied in a building. He can apply the same questions, too, to the forms considered as imitations of things heard or seen. Handel's " Pastoral Symphony," and the music of the Forest Scene in Wagner's " Seigfried " express not only certain phases of feeling, but these as influenced by certain surrounding conditions of external nature ; and though, for reasons to be given hereafter, music is the least imitative of the arts, it is not, for this reason, as some have claimed, merely presentative. Such works as have been mentioned must contain at least enough of the imitative element to represent, by way of association, if no more, the surroundings suggested. The same may be affirmed of the accessories or situations in a ballad or a drama ; and of the colors, proportions, or natural methods of adapting means to ends in a painting, a statue, or a building.

Vlll PREFA CE.

The term representative, as thus applied, moreover, is appropriate not only in the sense indicated by ordinary usage, but in the specific sense indicated by its etymology. The peculiarity of art, and of all art, is that it not only presents, but literally re-presents ; that is, presents over and over again in like series of movements, metaphors, measures, lines, contours, colors, whatever they may be, both the thoughts which it expresses and the forms through which it expresses them. These facts, however, will be brought out hereafter. They have been mentioned here merely in order to suggest the general conception in which the thoughts of this essay had their origin. That purpose having been accomplished, there is no call for further comment.

Princeton, N. J., October, 1893.

I. Page

Nature and Art . . 1-6

Art a Method — Artlessness and Art Illustrated — Differing not as Originality from Imitation — Nor as the Natural from the Unnatural — But as an Immediate Expression of Nature from Mediate or Represented Expression, Art being Nature Made Human or Nature Re-made by Man — Definitions of Nature, Human, and Re-made — This Definition of Art Applicable Universally — Art-Products, not Creations, but Reproductions of Nature — And also Results of Design which is Distinctively Human — Known to be Art in the Degree in which both Natural and Human Elements in it are Recognizable — Conclusion.

II

The Fine Arts, The Arts, Les Beaux-Arts — These Manifest the Finest and most Distinctive Art-Qualities — Arts Ranked by the Degree in which they most Finely and Distinctively Reproduce Nature : Useful, Operative, Mechanical, Technic, Applied Arts in which the Appearance is Non-Essential ; Ornamental and ^Esthetic Arts of Design in which the Appearance is Essential — In these Latter, Form is Essential — Forms Modelled upon those of Nature most Finely and Distinctively Reproduce it, and Belong" to The Fine Arts or The Arts — Universal Recognition of the Study of Nature as Essential to the Production of these — Forms Addressing and Expressing the Higher Intellectual Nature through Sound and Sight are Finely and Distinctively Human, — So are Forms Attributable to a Man as Distinguished from an Animal — These Forms are such as are Traceable to the Use of the Human Voice — And of the Human Hand — What the Higher Arts are, and their Two Main Characteristics — The Artist, the Artisan, and the Mechanic — Effectiveness of the Products of the Former.

X CONTENTS.

ILL

PAGE

Form and Significance as Antagonistic: Classicism and Romanticism . ... . . 17-33

The Two Antagonistic Requirements of Art — Mention of the Symbolic — Of the Realistic or Naturalistic — Origin of the Terms Classic and Romantic — Classicism — Its Earlier Influence — Later Tendency toward Imitation — Toward Decline in Music and Poetry — In Painting and Sculpture — Reason of this in Architecture — Revivals in Styles — Romanticism — In it the Idea Supreme — But the Best Results are Developed from Previous Excellence in Form — Tendency of Romanticism in Music — Wagner's Dramatic Effects — Romanticism in Poetry — Whitman — In Painting and Sculpture — Early Christian Art — Beneficial Effects upon Romanticism of Classicism — Condition in our own Times — Architecture : Exclusive Classicism Debasing — Exclusive Romanticism Debasing — The Best Periods Manifest Both — Necessity of Considering the Double Character of Art.

IV

Art-Forms as Representing rather than Imitating Natural Forms .... 34-46

Necessity for Making the Requirements of Form and Significance in Art Seem One — Necessity of Finding a Bond of Unity between the Arts and their Aims — Two Requirements Radically Different — The Results of this upon Theories and Methods — Can the Two Requirements be Made to Seem One ? — The Character of Artistic Reproduction of Natural Forms not merely Imitative : In Music — In Poetry — In Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture — Why Imitation alone is not Sufficient — Art must Reproduce the Effect of Nature upon the Mind — This Done by Representation — Connection between this Fact and the Appeal of Art to Imagination — To the Sympathies — In Music — Poetry — Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture — The Artist's Reason for Reproducing the Forms of Nature with Accuracy.

V

Art-Forms as Representing rather than Communicating Thought and Feeling . . 47-61

The Second Requirement of Art — The Materials of Artistic Expression— The End of it not to Communicate Thought or Feeling

CONTENTS. XI

PAGE

— Distinct Communication Lacks the Reproduction of Effects of Nature which Art Needs — Art Emphasizes the Natural Factors Used in Expression — Elaboration of Art-Forms Necessitates Repetition — These Constructed by Repeating Like Effects in Music — Poetry — Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture — Repe tition Involves Representation — As Does all Expression, whether Thought Comes from without the Mind — Or from within it — Representation the Aim of the Higher Arts — These Represent the Effects of Nature upon the Mind and also of the Mind upon Nature — Connection between this Latter Fact and the Expression in Art of Imagination — And of Personality — Why Art Elaborates Expressional Methods — Artistic Uses of Nature as Revealing Personality and Suggesting God — Art Creative — Possibly so in a very Deep Sense — The Divine Faculty.

VI

Representation of Natural Appearances as Involving THAT OF THE MlND .... 62-68

Further Explanations Needed — Two Ways of Showing a Similar Method Involved in Representation of Nature and of Mind — Line of Thought to be Pursued in the Two Following Chapters — Limitations of the Natural Appearances Used in Human Art as Distinguished from Animal Possibilities — Its Development from Vocal Sounds must Call Attention to their Agency in Expressing Thought and Feeling Irrespective of Ulterior Material Ends — The Same True of its Development from Objects of Sight Constructed by the Hand — Connection between these Facts and Leaving the Materials of Art Unchanged from the Conditions in which they Appear in Nature.

VII

Art-Products not Planned to Obtain Material Ends are Due to Play rather than Work — Concurrence of Opinions of the First Authorities on this Subject — Views of Schiller and Spencer — Errors in Views of the Latter — Imitation the only Invariable Characteristic of Play — Excess of Life-Force as Indicated in the Activity behind the Play- Impulse — Life-Force behind the Art-Impulse may be Mental and Spiritual — Philosophic Warrants for Ascribing Art to Inspiration —

Xll CONTENTS.

PAGE

It Consciously Gives Material Embodiment to that which has its Source in Subconscious Mental Action — Practical Warrant for Ascribing Art-Effects to Inspiration.

VIII. Representation of the Mind as Involving that

of Natural Appearances .... 81-96

Connection between the Art-Impulse and Imitation of Natural Appearances — A Utilitarian Desire to Produce Something Fitted to Attract Attention as a Mode of Expression not the Reason for Art-Imitation — But Charm or Beauty in the Object Imitated, which has had an Effect upon Desire — What Forms of Nature made Human Reproduce these Beautiful Effects? — Natural Intonations and Articulations of the Voice as Developed into Music and Poetry — Natural Marking, Shaping, and Combining by the Hands as Developed into Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture — Connection between an Expression and an External Product — Both Essential to Art in Music — In Poetry — In the Painting and Sculpture of Figures — Of Still Life — The only Explanation of the Existence of these Arts — Architecture Apparently both Useful and ^Esthetic — So are All Arts — Architecture as Representing Man — As Representing Nature — Its Further Possibilities in the Latter Direction — Not Separated in Principle from the Other Arts.

IX

The Higher as Distinguished from other Representative Arts ...... 97-105

Other Representative Arts besides those already Considered — Elocution, Pantomime, Dancing, Costuming, Jewelry, Personal Adornment, and Dramatic Art — These do not Necessitate a Product External to the Artist — Oratory Necessitates neither this nor an End Different from One of Utility — Decorative Art, Landscape Gardening, and Artistic Phases of Civil Engineering have less Possibilities of Expression — Yet All these are Allied to the Higher Arts and Fulfil the Same Principles — What is Meant by the Humanities ? — Phonetic and Plastic Art — ^Esthetic — Vagueness of these Distinctions — Appropriateness of the Term Representative — The Terms : Arts of Form, Beaux Arts, Fine Arts, Belles Lettres ; The Higher, The Higher /Esthetic, and The Higher Representative Arts.

CONTENTS. Xlii

X. Page

Representation in Art as Determined by Natural Appearances : Theories Concerning Beauty 106-122

Form as Manifested in Nature and Reproduced in Art — Characteristically Possesses Beauty — This should Predominate over the Ugly, but Need not Exclude it — The Distinction sometimes Drawn between Beauty and Expression — Necessity for a Definition of Beauty — The Three General Views with Reference to it — Mention of Writers Conditioning it upon Form — Of Writers Conditioning it upon Expression Traceable to Man — To a Source above the Man — The German Idealists — Mention of Writers Conditioning Beauty partly upon Form and partly upon Expression — The Term Beauty as ordinarily Used Indicates a Truth in All Three Theories, so far as they do not Exclude the Truth in the Others — Beauty may be in Form aside from that in Expression — It may be in Expression aside from that in Form — But Beauty is Complete only in the Degree in which that of Form and of Expression are Combined.

XI

Beauty as Absolute, Relative ; Objective, Subjective, ETC. ...... I23-13O

The Term Beauty as Used by the Foremost Authorities Indicates the Same as its Ordinary Use Noticed in the Last Chapter — Mention of Writers who Consider Beauty Relative — Of those who Distinguish Relative, Natural, Derived, or Dependent Beauty from that which is Essential, Divine, Typical, Absolute, Intrinsic, Free, etc. — Distinction between Relative and Absolute Beauty the most Common — All these Distinctions Imply an Appeal to the Senses through Forms and to the Mind through Suggestions — Beauty as Objective and Subjective — Mention of Writers Considering it Objective : these Claim it to be Recognized through its Subjective Effects — Mention of Writers Considering it Subjective : these do not Deny its Origin in Forms Considered by them Objective — They, too, Mean that Beauty must be Judged by its Effects — Mention of Other Writers Holding Unequivocably that Beauty is both Objective and Subjective.

XIV CONTENTS.

XII. Page

Physical and Mental .... 131-147

Results of our Review of Different Theories — The Term Effects and its Suggestions — Illustrations of Beauty as Attributable to Effects upon the Senses and the Mind and Both — As Incomplete because Attributable to Effects upon the Senses and not the Mind, or upon the Mind and not the Senses — Complexity of Effects thus Suggested as Essential to Beauty — Connection between this and our Present Line of Thought — Complexity of Effects Essential to the Beauty of Single Sounds, Lines, and Colors — Much more in Combinations of these in Art-Products-^Besides Complexity, Variety, Unity, and the Phase of the Latter Termed Harmony of Effects Necessary to Beauty — Harmony of Tone Explained — Of Color — The Relations of Both to Vibratory Action upon the Acoustic or Optic Nerves — Harmony of Effects as Produced in Rhythm and Proportion — Some Sense-Effects Entering into Harmony are Produced without Conscious Action of the Mind, but Some are not — Thought and Emotion as Determined according to Physiological Psychology, by Vibratory Action upon Nerves of Hearing, Sight, and the Whole Brain — But Thought and Emotion, Spontaneous or not Conveyed through the Senses, may also Determine Hearing and Sight — Effects Causing Beauty in this Case are Produced in the Mind — Facts with Reference to Vibratory Action in Connection with all Conscious Sensation should not be Ignored, but Need not be Solved in an ^Esthetic System — Sufficient Data for this Obtained by Accepting Effects in their Ascertainable Conditions.

XIII

Further Considerations Showing Beauty to Result from Mental as well as from Physical Effects ...... 148-160

End in View in this Discussion — Complexity of Effects can be Recognized only through Mental Analysis — A Form Conjured by Imagination Coincident with Every Form Appealing to the Senses — This Fact Illustrated in the Case of Music — Of Poetry — Of the Arts of Sight — Harmony of Effects as Produced within the Mind

CONTENTS. XV

PAGE

Means Likeness of Effects — Between Effects upon the Ear and Mind as in Music and Poetry — Between Effects upon the Eye and Mind as in Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture — Between Effects of Different Elements of Significance as Appealing to Recollection, Association, and Suggestion in All the Arts — Additional Methods of Showing the Presence of Mental Effects — Effects Operating Harmoniously upon the Senses, not Harmonizing with those upon the Mind — Effects not Operating Harmoniously upon the Senses Harmonizing with those upon the Mind — These Facts Necessitate Including Mental Effects with those of Beauty — But Complete Beauty Demands Harmony of both Physical and Mental Effects — Significance as well as Form an Element of Beauty.

XIV

Recapitulation — Definition of Beauty — Limitations of the Definition— Relation of the Beautiful to the Sublime, the Brilliant, and the Picturesque — Applies to Appearances in both Nature and Art — In both Time and Space — What the Definition necessarily Leaves Unexplained ; and how in this System this is to be Remedied — All Effects of Beauty Developed from the Principle of Putting Like with Like— This Principle as Applied by the Artist in Accordance with the Action of the Mind in Other Analogous Matters — As Exemplified in Art in Accordance with Effects as Manifested in Nature — This Conception of Beauty and its Sources Solves the Question as to whether Art can be merely Imitative or merely Expressive — Taste — Correspondence of its Action to that of Conscience and Judgment — Standards of Taste.

XV. The Definition of Beauty tested by its Accord

with the Conceptions of Others . . 172-184

How the Definition of Beauty in the Last Chapter Accords with the Theory Considering Beauty as an Effect, Including the Conceptions of Shine and Splendor — As Harmony — One in the Manifold, or Unity in Variety — Perfection — Utility — The Good, the

XVI CONTENTS.

PAGE

True — As an Effect of Association — As Symbolic — As Identical with Life or Vital Force — With Emotive Force or Love — With an Appeal to the Sympathies, or of Personality — Truth of these Latter Views, as also of the Theory of Association — The Platonic and Aristotelian Theories again — Limitations of each — Difficulty of Finding a Basis of Agreement upon which to Reconcile them — The Method Pursued in this Discussion will do this — The Play- Impulse Tending to Imitation Indicates Effects from Within and also from Without — Natural Forms Affecting the Mind Indicate Effects both Formal and Mental — In what Regard each of the Theories is True — Each is Defective in so far as it Excludes the Truth in the Other.

XVI. Representation in Art as Developed by Mental

Conditions ; Considered Historically . 185-195

Introduction — Effects of Appearances upon the Mind are Inclusive both of Forms and of Principles of Formation — And are Produced both upon the Senses and upon the Thoughts and Feelings — The Three Inseparable Objects of Consideration in the Present Inquiry — Order of Development in the Modes of Expression — As Surmised from Prehistoric Records Rationally Interpreted — As Shown from Historic Records — In the Lives of Individuals among Animals — Among Men — Also in the Influence upon Expression of Some One Event or Series of Events in the Individual's Experience — Physical Thrill, and Vocal Expression Leading to Music — Definite Opinions, and Verbal Expression Leading to Poetry — Conflicting Opinions Leading to Oratory — Contemplation of Facts as they Appear Leading to Painting and Sculpture — Planning and Rearranging Leading to Architecture.

XVII. Representation in Art as Developed by Mental

Conditions ; Considered Physiologically 196-202

Conditions of Natural Influence and States of Consciousness as Represented in each Art — Ideas in the Mind and the Influence from Without Compared to Ice and to Currents Flowing into an Inlet —

CONTENTS. XVli

PAGE.

The Condition Corresponding to Music, Poetry, Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture — This Comparison Corresponds to Physical Facts, Large Vibrations of the Nerves Causing Sounds, Small Vibrations Causing Colors — Largest Nerve Movement Exerted in Connection with Music, Less with Poetry, Less with the Colors of Painting, and Least with the less Brilliant Colors of Sculpture and Architecture — Our Nerves are directly Conscious of the Vibrations of Sounds, as in Thunder, but not of those of Color — This Fact as Applied Mythologically and Medicinally.

XVIII. Representation in Art as Developed by Mental

Conditions; Considered Psychologically 203-216

Mental Facts are in Accord with what has Preceded — Inarticulate Cries Representative of Suddenly Excited Emotions — Why these Cries are Intelligible — Association and Comparison — Emotion Co-extensive with Consciousness — Music the Language of the Emotions — The Indefiniteness of its Effect — Its Degree of Definiteness — Gives Direction to Sentiment with the Least Limitation to Freedom — Musical Ideas — Observation of Natural Forms and Experience of Human Sentiments are both Conditions Underlying Musical Composition — Influence from Without and Ideas Within in Poetry — The Function of Intelligence — Influences and Ideas Made One by an Exercise of Comparison — Association and Comparison at the Basis of Words and of the Forms of Language and Poetry.

XIX

Representation in Art as Developed by Mental Conditions ; Considered Psychologically (Continued) ..... 217-228 Definite Conceptions in Opposition to the Influence from Without, Lead to the Distinguishing of the One from the Other — Persuasion and Oratory — How Differing from Poetry and Fine Art — In the latter, the Influences from Without and from the Ideas suggest Contrast — Rendering Necessary an External Medium of Representation— Bearing of this subject upon Poetic Descriptions — Rendering necessary also a Stationary Medium — Landscape Gardening — Painting — Sculpture, Representing less of Nature and more of

XV111 CONTENTS.

PAGB

Ideas within the Mind — Therefore Offering more Resistance to the Motive from Without — Architecture Represents the Will, in that it is still less Influenced by Natural Forms — In the Latter Regard Architecture Resembles Music — For an Opposite Reason, Poetry, Painting, and Sculpture are between these Extremes — Completeness of this Analysis of the Arts in Accordance with their Development from Representative Effects.

XX

Further Conditions Underlying the Representation of Thought in Each of the Arts . 229-243

Further Conditions from which to Draw Inferences with Reference to the Particular Form of the Mode of Representation — Recapitulation— Association — Comparison and Contrast as Related to the Work of Imagination — Audible Expression as Representative of the Instinctive Tendency — Development of this in Music and Poetry — Visible Expression as Developed in Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture Representative of the Reflective Tendency — Methods in Art-Composition Confirming these Statements — Instinctive and Reflective Tendencies both Present together in all Art that is Emotive, or Manifests Soul — Something both of the Instinctive and Reflective must be Represented in each Art — Music as Subjective, Poetry, Painting, and Sculpture as Relative, and Architecture as Subjective — All the Highest Art is both Subjective and Relative, i. e. , Objective — Bearing of what has been Said upon Form in each Art — Sustained Sounds are Instinctively Subjective and Spontaneous ; Unsustained Sounds are Instinctively Relative and Responsive — Both Forms of Sound as Developed respectively in Music and Poetry — No other Fundamental Difference between Sounds in these — Order and Relation of the Development of these Forms of Sound — Same Principles Applied to the Arts of Sight — Sustained Action is reflectively Subjective and Spontaneous ; Unsustained Action is reflectively Relative and Responsive — Each Method of Action as Developed respectively in Architecture and in Painting and Sculpture— Analogies between Architecture and Music — Between Poetry, Painting, and Sculpture — Recapitulation and Summary — Conclusion.

Appendix 245

Index 249

ART IN THEORY.

Chapter I. Nature And Art

Art a Method — Artlessness and Art Illustrated — Differing not as Originality from Imitation — Nor as the Natural from the Unnatural — But as an Immediate Expression of Nature from Mediate or Represented Expression, Art being Nature Made Human or Nature Re-made by Man — Definitions of Nature, Human, and Re-made — This Definition of Art Applicable Universally — Art-Products, not Creations, but Reproductions of Nature — And also Results of Design which is Distinctively Human — Known to be Art in the Degree in which both Natural and Human Elements in them are Recognizable — Conclusion.