Argon and Newton: A Realisation

Front matter

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Preface

" To tell US that every species of things is endowed with an occult specific quality by which it acts and produces manifest effects is to tell us nothing. But to derive two or three general Principles of Motion from phenomena^ and afterwards to tell us how the properties and actions of all corporeal things follow from those manifest Principles^ would be a very great step in Philosophy'' — Newton, '* Opticks," 3rd edition, p. 377.

The discovery of Argon and Helium is, without doubt, an extraordinary event. In fact, it is an event so extraordinary that the President of the Chemistry Section at the last meeting of the British Association is reported to have prefaced the remarks referring to it in his opening address by saying that "the past year has been such an eventful one in the way of startling discoveries." — Nature^ September 12th, 1895, p. 483-

Possibly, some still cherish the hope that Argon may turn out to be N 3 or some other allotropic form of nitrogen, notwithstanding the arrival of a second inactive element in the shape of Helium.

All, however, will now admit that Argon and Helium show that inactive elements of some kind are in existence.

a 2

VI. PREFACE.

That admission will be quite sufficient for my purposes, as I hope to show that the properties of active elements, i.e., valent elenients, afford circumstantial evidence of the existence of a class of inactive elements so wonderfully clear that there can be no room for reasonable doubt as to what kind of things inactive elements really are.

An(d this is not a case of being wise after the event. For the evidence, in fact, is so strong and clear that I was able to discover and point out in Chapter III. of my book, ** Force as an Entity,*' the probable existence of inactive elements four years before Argon was ever heard of.

The case is, indeed, as I shall hope to show in the present book, far stronger than I put it in *' Force as an Entity"; but this, too, I had discovered, and was on the eve of pointing out, as explained in my article in The Chemical News of the 22nd March, 1895, when Argon itself appeared.

The case, therefore, is in no way one of being wise after the event.

With this explanation I will now proceed to explain the object of the investigation, in the course of which inactive elements come in as necessary features.

The object then of this investigation is to endeavour, on the lines laid down by Newton, and to the extent which he considered possible, to demonstrate experimentally, i.e., by arguing from well-known facts in a way which everyone can understand, that this wonderful Universe of ours is a reality, and that we ourselves and all other living creatures within it are doing real work consciously or unconsciously therein.

So that, if possible, we may understand the situation in which we — as individuals — are placed, and perceive clearly why we are here and what we have to do, and thus no longer work unconsciously, if we have been working unconsciously hitherto,

The method adopted is to endeavour to show that the Universe is a building put together with materials shaped for building purposes, so as to fit together in certain positions and in certain positions only ; but, at the same time, so hard and solid as to be unbreakable and unalterable under any conditions which obtain now.

Having shown thus by the forms of visible things the forms these invisible materials — these minute hard atoms — take, so that anyone can model them or get models of them made, and thus understand clearly what can be done with them, the next step is to endeavour to show that they are put together with a binding material which unites them atom to atom by minute subtle joints, as bricks are united by mortar, or wooden things by glue, with large, coarse joints ; and thus to show that atoms are put together in a way which everyone can understand, though the joints are so minute that they could not be examined even with a microscope more powerful a thousand times than any now obtainable.

Having in this way arrived at the forms the materials take, and at the way in which they are put together, an endeavour will then be made to show how they are built up into groups and masses and bodies, and thus a complete universe built up in ways which all can follow who are prepared to go over the steps carefully, and think them over.

VIII. PREFACE.

After explaining thus the way in which the universe has been built up, an endeavour will in the last place be made to show that all forms of life take part in the operation of building it or in hindering the building, either by building up or pulling down, or by superintending ; and to show the bearing of the work of each upon the whole, as well as the significance of the work of each.

Having explained thus the scope of the inquiry, and the fact that the inquiry proceeds on lines laid down by Newton himself, and no further than he contemplated ; and therefore shown that it is one which distinctly has Newton's authority, it becomes necessary to explain also that Newton does not seem to have made any attempt to arrive at the form of the atom ; and did not form any conclusions whatever in regard to the existence of such things as the fluid corpuscles with which we work so largely.

At the same time it should not be overlooked that Newton had clear ideas in regard to the existence of hard atoms, and as to the fact that they had sizes and figures, and therefore forms. Neither should it be overlooked that Newton held atoms to be " moveable," and also had indistinct ideas in reference to the existence of something by which atoms were either impelled towards each other, or repelled ; and sometimes even seems to have inclined to the idea that this something was a fluid.

All this will presently be made quite clear. Further than this, however, Newton did not go.

But though Newton's support cannot be claimed for our

PREFACE. IX.

conclusions in regard to the form of the hard atom, yet other support can be claimed for them, namely, the support of Argon and Helium.

We build, indeed, nothing upon Argon or Helium, or with them. In truth, it is their general unsuitability for employment in any kind of building whatever which makes their support of so much importance; though at the same time we recognise that such unsuitability does not go to the length of complete inability to form part of any structure whatever. We shall, in fact, show in Chapters I. and VI., that though marked unsuitability for building purposes is their characteristic feature, it is, from our point of view, quite possible that they may in some cases be worked into buildings. And in the case of Helium we distinctly recognise on account of the smallness of its atoms the possibility that anomalous combinations may occur with it of the same kind as we conceive occur with hydrogen when it forms water or hydrogen peroxide, in the way shown in Fig. 4, p. 208, though such combinations cannot occur with Argon.

It is plain that so long as materials suitable for building and none others were known to us, there was room for doubt whether the form suitable for building was not one of the necessary conditions of the existence of these things ; and whether, in fact, they had not existed from all eternity in that form. But the situation was quite changed as soon as materials were discovered which were unsuited for building operations. For the strong evidence brought forward in

PREFACE.

Chapter III. of " Force as an Entity," that valent metalloid atoms had all undergone a process of shaping, and had been formed out of the atoms of pre-existing inactive elements, acquired quite a new significance when Argon and Helium came to show that inactive elements of some kind are in actual existence, and that such things are not mere creations of our own imagination.

We have now the assurance that we shall be able ere long to show, not only that the materials of which this universe has been built have all been specially shaped for building purposes, but also the quarry, as it were, from which each kind has been extracted.

We do not build with Argon and Helium therefore, but we have room for them. We have vacant places which they alone, or things like them, can occupy. And what is more, their places were ready before Argon and Helium appeared.

We were not only ready to welcome Argon and Helium directly they arrived, but had been looking out for them, or things like them, some time before they came, though scarcely venturing to hope that we should ever see them.

Now that they have come we do not, it is true, know as yet exactly which of the many available places to assign to them ; because investigation has not yet determined whether each is not in reality a mixed company which will want several places instead of one only.

If, however, it should turn out that they are not mixed companies, then we shall have no doubt whatever as to where they ought to go. We have, in fact, their places quite ready^ as will presently appear,

Argon and Helium, then, afford us exactly the kind of support we wanted, and, moreover, have come just at the time when the building was high enough to need support. With them, and a sufficient number of other elements like them, we have good hope that the building will stand firmly.

We may remark here that one of the chief difficulties attending work of this kind is the difficulty of obtaining the quietness which is essential for it. The supply of facts for building is ample. The difficulty is to put them exactly into their right places. This cannot be done without perfect quietness.

The Greeks, we may remark, had a tradition in regard to the great thinker, Democritus, of Abdera, which, however exaggerated it may be, well expresses the difficulty to which we allude.

Democritus was engaged largely upon a portion of the work which is before us here, viz., the determination of the form of the atom.

The Greek tradition was that he put out his eyes to avoid being distracted from thinking.

Carlyle, in his own rugged way, puts the difficulty very bluntly in another form. His view is that if any man takes to thinking, " new Emissaries are trained, with new tactics, to, if possible, entrap him, and hoodwink and handcuff him." — " Sartor Resartus," Book II., Chapter IV,

Whatever the cause may be, the difficulty of obtaining

XII. PREFACE.

perfect quietness is undoubtedly great ; and we have to plead it. For the structure we present in these pages, though not wanting as we believe in any way in stability, comes very far short in point of finish of what we had hoped to achieve.

{The question of reality, if it admits of solution, is manifestly one which concerns vitally every individual man and woman in the universe.

But the question has national aspects as well as individual aspects. If the whole situation is real ; if right and wrong have a real significance, and are not mere matters of opinion ; if this world has sore need of a power mighty for right, and able to speak out when wrong is done, and say with a voice which shall compel attention that the thing shall not be so ; if the dark parts of the world have sore need of the strong rule of righteousness which our executive officers, English, Scotch, and Irish alike, exercise over some parts of them in a way none have ever done for any lengthened period before ; if it be true that it is impossible to rule righteously, or act at all times rightly without adequate strength ; — then manifestly the situation is one for us Britons with our millions of Mussulman and Hindoo fellow subjects, and for our brother Americans, Australians, and South Africans, to lay to heart.

We of this brotherhood outnumber all other nations by far; excel them, too, far more in material resources even than we do in numbers.

Why under such circumstances is there no preponderating power upon this earth ?

PREFACE, XIII,

Is it not a worthy cause, this cause of right, of progress, and of the welfare of mankind ?

Would it not be an inestimable benefit to us all to be drawn closer together; for us Britons to have American energy to help us in developing our dominions ; for America to have more of our resources to help her in developing, and to have the wider field we can open to her ?

It would bring with it at the outset employment for all our unemployed who are able to work.

We need something more than a navy.

We need to be so strong, and so strongly posted, that any combination of other powers against us could be met.

We need first of all a great fortified camp in mid-England in which our militia and volunteers can collect, and find stores and ammunition ready to hand.

We want with our long coast line a position which will make it an impossibility for any foreign power to attempt to rush our defences before we are ready, and plant suddenly a force in our midst which will cut off North from South, and hold us at its mercy — whether after a naval reverse, or after a storm, or in a fog with pilots able by long practice to effect a crossing in a fog, or under any other circumstances.

The works which we need, and the army and armament which we need, will give employment to our unemployed.

If the situation is a real one, then it may be inferred that it will not always be open to us to neglect it. For we know

A

XIV. PREFACE.

that real situations of this kind have arisen again and again before ; and we know what the result has been when they met with no recognition.

We know, for example, that such a situation opened before the commercial colonizing Phoenicians, and found no recognition either in the mother country or in its colonies, but only disunion, distrust, and self-seeking everywhere rampant ; until at length Carthage, with the situation completely in its grasp, under splendid Hannibal, contemptuously disregarded it in mean jealousy, not knowing that it was a life and death matter until those terrible words rang out, ** Carthage must be destroyed." We know, also, that a situation of this kind opened before the colonizing Greeks, again finding no recognition, but only disunion, distrust, and self-seeking everywhere, both in the mother country and in its colonies. And, anon, / captive Greece had to look on while another appropriated all that was hers. We know, too, that a like situation opened before Spain and Portugal. And we have the result before us. The situation is not, then, a new one. Ah, no, it is not new.

Just a few words more. At p. 201 of "Force as an Entity," the need of Miracles of Science to rouse us by throwing a flood of "light on the whole inner man " was fully pointed out. May we not see in Rontgen rays a Miracle of the kind required ?J

ARGON AND NEWTON:

H *Reali0ation.

Introduction

*' It is those who know little, and not those who know much who so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science.'' — Darwin, " Descent of Man," Vol. I., p. 3, 2nd edition.

The strangest thing about Argon and Helium plainly is the fact that they are elements characterised by an extreme reluctance to form any kind of association whatever, whether by combining or cohering.

Nevertheless, the occurrence of elements with this strange inactivity was not altogether unexpected, inasmuch as in ** Force as an Entity,'* which was published in 1890, elements of this particular kind are introduced in Chapter HI., in the course of an inquiry into the form of Newton's hard atom, and play a very important part.

They are described there simply by their atoms, which are stated at pp. 65 and 66 to be ** spherical bodies . . . ^

B unaffected either by chemical affinity or cohesion " ; the reason for describing them as "unchipped atoms," or as "perfect spheres," and not as elements being that the term element did not seem quite appropriate to things which do not ordinarily combine.

The whole of the conclusions in Chapter III, in regard to the form of the atom postulate the existence of elements of this kind in the past ; but at the same time the possibility that some are still in existence is clearly pointed out at pp. 68 and 69.

The existence of elements of this kind is, however, not only postulated by the form obtained for the atom, but is also incidentally demonstrated by evidence, adduced from the Periodic Law, from the four remarkable series which the metalloid elements form ; and at the same time the atomic weights of four of these inactive elements are deduced by calculation from the same four series in the Tables on pp. 64 and 65, and in the context.

The fact that these very series point to the existence of elements of no valency, and at the same time can be used to deduce the atomic weights of three such elements, has been independently noticed by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay, and pointed out in Paragraph XVL of their paper on " Argon : a New Constituent of the Atmosphere,'* which was read before the Royal Society on the 31st January, 1895. In that paper the discoverers of Argon make the following remark : '* The series which

A ' o- IV r> I"- and v. o H- to vi. , ^i i. to vii. _.,* u*

PREDICTIONS. 3

be expected to end with an element of monatomic molecules of no valency, i.e., incapable of forming a compound, or if forming one, being an octad." — Chemical News, ist February, 1895.

It will be seen that the series used in this remark is the second of the four series given in the Table on p. 65 of " Force as an Entity," referred to above.

It will be seen also that in the same paragraph of the same paper, the discoverers of Argon have manifestly used the same series along with the first and third of the four series in the Table at p. 65 of " Force as an Entity," in deducing by interpolation the atomic weights of three elements of no valency, and that the values obtained are as follows, viz., with the first series a value between rg and 23, with the second a value of 37, and with the third a value of 82.

The same three series have been, as already pointed out, used in the Tables on pp. 64 and 65 of " Force as an Entity" and context for the same purpose, i.e., to deduce the atomic weights of three elements of no valency, as well as for another purpose,

The values obtained from them in " Force as an Entity" by calculation are, however, not quite the same as the values obtained by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay by interpolation, but are simply 20, 40, and 80, instead of a value between 19 and 23, another of 37, and a third of 82, which are the values obtained by the discoverers of Argon as already stated.

ARGON AND NEWTON: A REALISATION.

The chief reason of the discrepancy is because corrected values are used in "Force as an Entity" instead of the indicated values. And the reason for taking corrected values is because of the remarkable tendency towards an arrangement by multiples of 20 which the three values exhibit, and also because of the remarkable symmetry from a periodic point of view of the arrangement, viz., that of 20, 40, and 80, when the values are made multiples of 20.

And it is noteworthy that, by correcting the values in this way we get Argon itself, if Argon is homogeneous and not a mixture, as the element of no valency connected with the second series of the four tabulated in ** Force as an Entity" at p. 65. For we get an element of no valency of atomic weight 40, which is plainly none other than Argon, if Argon is homogeneous, since the atomic weight of Argon is 40. And if then Argon turns out to be homogeneous we shall have the correctness of our method vindicated.

It is noteworthy also that if Helium turns out to be homogeneous it will, since its atomic weight lies between 4 and 5, afford further proof of the correctness of our method when extended to the series formed by the metal elements; since the first of the metal series indicates bj this method the existence of an element of no valency o atomic weight 5. Moreover, the fact was chronicled by u in an article in the Chemical News of the 22nd March, 189; before the discovery of Helium was announced.

INACTIVE ELEMENTS. S

Any proof, however, which Argon and Helium can afford in that way of the correctness of our work is, after all, of small importance in comparison with the proof of the soundness of our work afforded by their presence as elements differing from all other known elements, by having an extreme reluctance either to combine or to cohere, and thus affording strong support to our conclusions in " Force as an Entity," in regard to the existence of a class of elements with this characteristic inactivity.

Investigation into the inactivity of Argon and Helium will, doubtless, go on for many years to come.

It should, however, be remembered that the form, viz., that of a perfect sphere, obtained in "Force as an Entity" for the atoms of elements with this characteristic inactivity in no way precludes all possibility of combination or cohesion taking effect amongst them.

A sphere may lodge in a depression, and even have a firm seat in a cup-shaped hollow which fits it accurately.

It is quite possible, therefore, from our point of view, that suitable seats may be found on M. Berthelot's or some other plan, for Argon atoms, amongst the atoms on some complex hydrocarbon or other molecules and combination be thus brought about.

And since with the case of Saturn's rings before us, it does

. not seem impossible that a spherical atom should be loaded

I with a girdle of molecules; therefore also with our explanation

I of abnormal valency, as given in Chapter III., it does not

seem impossible from our point of view that the Argon atom

ARGON AND NEWTON: A REALISATION.

should have abnormally the octad valency which on speculative grounds Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay consider possible for it.

Our conclusions, therefore, do not point to the existence of a class of elements entirely without valency. Nor do they point to the existence of a class of elements entirely without coherence. We know that a pile can be built with round shot if the bottom course is confined so as to be prevented from spreading. It is not, therefore, impossible to make a stack of round shot, but at the same time it is more difficult to make one than it is to make a stack of bricks.

And if, therefore. Argon and Helium are confined in tubes, it should not from our point of view be impossible to condense them into liquid or solid masses ; but at the same time it should be a more difficult matter to condense them than it is to condense other gases of the same density.

Our conclusions, therefore, point to the existence of a class of elements differing markedly from all known elements in having less valency and less coherence.

And from the published accounts of the behaviour of Argon and Helium we find that investigation has gone quite far enough to show that they do differ from all other known elements in these very ways.

In this connection we may point, in the matter of valency, to Professor Ramsay's statement in the paper by himself conjointly with Dr. Collie and Mr. Travers, which was read before the Chemical Society on the 20th June, 1895.

In that paper it is stated that " It cannot be doubted th

INACTIVE ELEMENTS.

a close analogy exists between Argon and Helium. Both resist sparking with oxygen in presence of caustic soda ; both are unattacked by red hot magnesium ; and if we draw the usual inference from the ratio between their specific heats at constant volume and at constant pressure, both are monatomic gases. These properties undoubtedly place them in the same chemical class, and differentiate them from all known elements." — Nature, Vol. LII., p. 333.

While on the matter of cohesion we may point to Professor Ramsay's letter, dated 23rd September, in Nature, of the 3rd October, 1895, in which it is stated that Professor Olszewski, of Krakau, " has been unable to detect any sign of liquefaction " in a sample of Helium exposed "to the same treatment as was successful in liquefying hydrogen — namely, compressing with a pressure of 140 atmospheres, cooling to the temperature of air boiling at low pressure, and then expanding suddenly."

We may point also to Professor Olszewski's results in his paper on the " Liquefaction and Solidification of Argon," in which it is shown that the boiling point of Argon is — iS7'0, while that of oxygen is — iSa'/.

The significance of these results will be apparent if it is remembered that the density of Helium is more than twice as high as that of hydrogen, and the density of Argon higher by one-fourth than that of oxygen.

Thus we find that investigation has already gone far enough to show that Argon and Helium do differ markedly from all other known elements in having less valency and less coherence than they ; and by so differing afford strong support to the conclusions in " Force as an Entity," in regard to the existence of a class of elements differing from all others in these very ways.

For us the importance of the fact that Argon and Helium should have made their appearance — and moreover should have made their appearance at the time when the support they are able to give us was most wanted, viz., at the time when . our further investigations into the form of the atom and into that of the fluid corpuscle were just completed, as explained in our article in the Chemical News of the 22nd March, 1895 — lies in the bearing which such a fact must have upon the rest of our work.

If our conclusions in regard to the form of the atom arrived at by arguing from phenomena have been strengthened by the advent of Argon and Helium, then likewise must our conclusions in regard to the form of the fluid corpuscle which also have been arrived at by arguing from phenomena be to some extent strengthened too, and thus the whole cause of reality be advanced.

At all events Argon and Helium do manifestly afford to the extent our knowledge of them goes a guarantee that we are not altogether unfitted to undertake the task Sir Isaac Newton assigned to science, when he said that the *' main business of Natural Philosophy is to argue from phenomena without feigning hypotheses, and to deduce causes from effects till we come to the very First Cause which certainly is not mechanical." — *' Opticks," 3rd edition, p. 344.

We have laid stress upon this point, because " Force as an Entity " in reality undertakes the task which Newton thus assigned to science, and actually accomplishes it ; does, in fact, actually work by arguing from phenomena, and deducing cause from effect right up to the great First Cause.

Hence, as a book, it is perhaps unique. At all events, no other book has attempted to do the like to our knowledge.

This, therefore, is the explanation we would offer to our critics who were unable to understand the book.

But to those who have laid much stress upon the short cuts and shortcomings of the book, as did in particular our critics in Iron, of the i8th April, 1890; and in The Engineer, of the 6th June, 1890, we would point out that Argon and Helium are now present to testify in person to the soundness ■ of the materials in the foundations of the work. In fact, it would be difficult to conceive it possible that a reply, more complete, could be made to criticism in any case, than that I which is suggested in the case of these criticisms in Iran and The Engineer by the two words Argon and HeUum.

In regard to the superstructure, and in particular to the fact that the correctness of our deductions from the first law of motion is called in question by both of these critics, we would remark that the point we wished to bring out was that all true motion is due to force, and that this i Newton's teaching. We would, therefore, refer to Newton's own words in the "Principia" on the subject, which are quite unmistakable, and run as follows, according to Andrew xo ARGON AND NEWTON: A REALISATION.