The architecture of humanism : a study in the history of taste 1924

Preface

THE scope of this book requires a word of explanation, since from a very simple purpose it has developed to a rather complicated issue. My intention had been to formulate the chief principles of classical design in architecture. I soon realised that in the present state of our thought no theory of art could be made convincing, or even clear, to any one not already persuaded of its truth. There may, at the present time, be a lack of architectural taste: there is, unfortuately, no lack of architectural opinion. Architecture, it is said, must be ‘ expressive of its purpose’ or ‘expressive of its true construction’ or ‘expressive of the materials it employs’ or ‘expressive of the national life’ (whether noble or otherwise) or ‘ expressive of a noble life’ (whether national or not) ; or expressive of the craftsman’s temperament, or the owner's or the architect’s, or, on the contrary, ‘academic’ and studiously indifferent to these factors. It must, we are told, be symmetrical, or it must be picturesque—that is, above all things, unsymmetrical. It must be ‘traditional’ and ‘scholarly,’ that is,

-yesembling what has already been done by Greek, vii viii THE ARCHITECTURE OF HUMANISM

Roman, Medizval or Georgian architects, or it must be ‘original’ and ‘spontaneous,’ that is, it must be at pains to avoid this resemblance; or it must strike some happy compromise between these opposites ; and so forth indefinitely.

If these axioms were frankly untrue, they would be easy to dismiss ; if they were based on fully reasoned theories, they would be easy, at any rate, to discuss. They are neither. We have few ‘fully reasoned ’ theories, and these, it will be seen, are flagrantly at variance with the facts to be explained. We subsist on a number of architectural habits, on scraps of tradition, on caprices and prejudices, and above all on this mass of more or less specious axioms, of half-truths, unrelated, uncriticised and often contradictory, by means of which there is no building so bad that it cannot with a little ingenuity be justified, or so good that it cannot plausibly be condemned. |

Under these circumstances, discussion is almost impossible, and it is natural that criticism should become dogmatic. Yet dogmatic criticism is barren, and the history of architecture, robbed of any standard of value, is barren also.

It appears to me that if we desire any clearness in this matter, we are driven from a priori zsthetics to the history of taste, and from the history of taste to the history of ideas. It is, I believe, from a failure ph 3d | Va oie Oe Sagan 1X to appreciate the true relation of taste to ideas, and the influence which each has exerted on the other, that our present confusion has resulted.

I have attempted, consequently, in the very narrow field with which this book is concerned, to trace the natural history of our opinions, to discover how far upon their own premisses they are true or false, and to explain why, when false, they have yet remained plausible, powerful, and, to many minds, convincing.

This is to travel far from the original question. Yet I believe the inquiry to be essential, and I have sought to keep it within the rigorous limit of a single argument. On these points the reader will decide.

So far as this study is concerned with the culture of the Italian Renaissance, I am indebted, as every student must always be indebted, primarily to Burckhardt. I have profited also by Wd6lfflin’s Renaissance und Barock. To the friendship of Mr. Bernhard Berenson I owe a stimulus and encouragement which those who share it will alone appreciate. Mr. Francis Jekyll of the British Museum has kindly corrected my proofs.

_ PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

AN epilogue at the end of the volume contains what I have wished to add in this edition. There are a few changes in the text ; but these do not affect the argument of the book. G. 8.

March 1924.

Contents

INTRODUCTION PHA Bee f ; ; I CHAP.

~ I, RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE ; f 15

* II. THE ROMANTIC FALLACY : i ? 37

Introduction

‘WELL-BUILDING hath three conditions: Commodity, Firmness, and Delight.’ From this phrase of an English humanist! a theory of architecture might take its start. Architecture is a focus where three separate purposes have converged. They are blended in a single method ; they are fulfilled in a single result ; yet in their own nature they are distinguished from each other by a deep and permanent disparity. The criticism of architecture has been confused in its process; it has built up strangely diverse theories of the art, and the verdicts it has pronounced have been contradictory in the extreme. Of the causes which have contributed to its failure, this is the chief: that it has sought to force on architecture an unreal unity of aim. ‘Commodity, firmness, and delight’; between these three values the criticism of architecture has insecurely. wavered, _ not always distinguishing very clearly between them,

1 Sir Henry Wotton, Elements of Architecture. He is adapting Vitruvius, Bk. 1. chap. iii.

A seldom attempting any statement of the relation they bear to one another, never pursuing to their conclusion the consequences which they involve. It has leaned now this way and now that, and struck, between these incommensurable virtues, at different points, its arbitrary balance.

Architecture, the most complex of the arts, offers to its critics many paths of approach, and as many opportunities for avoiding their goal. At the outset of a fresh study in this field, it is well, at the risk of pedantry, to define where these paths lead.

Architecture requires ‘firmness.’ By this necessity it stands related to science, and to the standards of science. The mechanical bondage of construction has closely circumscribed its growth. Thrust and balance, pressure and its support, are at the root of the language which architecture employs. The inherent characters of marble, brick, wood and iron have moulded its forms, set limits to its achievement, and governed, in a measure, even its decorative detail. On every hand the study of architecture encounters physics, statics, and dynamics, suggesting, controlling, justifying its design. It is open to us, therefore, to look in buildings for the logical expression of material properties and, material laws. Without these, architecture is impossible, its history unintelligible. And if, finding these everywhere paramount, we seek, in terms of material properties

INTRODUCTION 3 and material laws, not merely to account for the history of architecture, but to assess its value, then architecture will be judged by the exactness and sincerity with which it expresses constructive facts, and conforms to constructive laws. That will be the scientific standard for architecture: a logical standard so far as architecture is related to science, and no further. |

But architecture requires ‘commodity.’. It is not enough that it should possess its own internal coherence, its abstract logic of construction. It has come into existence to satisfy an external need. That, also, is a fact of its history. Architecture is subservient to the general uses of mankind. And, immediately, politics and society, religion and liturgy, the large movements of races and their common occupations, become factors in the study. These determine what shall be built, and, up to a point, in what way. The history of civilisation thus leaves in architecture its truest, because its most unconscious record. If, then, it is legitimate to consider architecture as an expression of mechanical laws, it is legitimate, no less, to see in it an expression of human life. This furnishes a standard of value totally distinct from the scientific. Buildings may be judged by the success with which they supply the practical ends they are designed to meet. Or, by a natural extension, we may judge them by the value of those ends themselves; that is to say, by the external purposes which they reflect. These, indeed, are two very different questions. The last makes a moral reference which the first avoids, but both spring, and spring inevitably, from the link which architecture has with life—from that ‘condition of well-building ’ which Wotton calls commodity.

And architecture requires ‘delight.’ For this reason, interwoven with practical ends and their mechanical solutions, we may trace in architecture a third and different factor—the disinterested desire for beauty. This desire does not, it is true, culminate here in a purely esthetic result, for it has to deal with a concrete basis which is utilitarian. It is, none the less, a purely esthetic impulse, an impulse distinct from all the others which architecture may simultaneously satisfy, an impulse by virtue of which architecture becomes art. It is a separate instinct. Sometimes it will borrow a suggestion from the laws of firmness or commodity ; sometimes it will run counter to them, or be offended by the forms they would dictate. It has its own standard, and claims its own authority. It is possible, therefore, to ask how far, and how successfully, in any architectural style, this esthetic impulse has been embodied ; how far, that is to say, the instincts which, in the other arts, exert an obvious and unhampered activity, have succeeded in realising themselves also through

INTRODUCTION 5 this more complicated and more restricted instrument. And we can ask, still further, whether there may not be esthetic instincts, for which this instrument, restricted as it is, may furnish the sole and peculiar expression. ‘This is to study architecture, in the strict sense, as an art.

Here, then, are three ‘ conditions of well-building,’ | and corresponding to them three modes of criticism, and three provinces of thought.

Now what, in fact, is the result ? The material data of our study we certainly possess in abundance : the statistics of architecture, the history of existing works, their shape and size and authorship, have long been | investigated with the highest scholarship. But when we ask to be given not history but criticism, when we seek to know what is the value of these works of art, viewed in themselves or by comparison with one another, and why they are to be considered worthy of this exact attention, and whether one is to be considered more deserving of it than another, and on what grounds, the answers we obtain may be ready and numerous, but they are certainly neither consistent nor clear.

The criticism of architecture has been of two kinds. The first of these remains essentially historical. It is content to describe the conditions under which the styles of the past arose. It accepts the confused and partly fortuitous phenomenon which architecture actually is, and estimates the phenomenon by — a method as confused and fortuitous as itself. It passes in and out of the three provinces of thought, and relates its subject now to science, now to art, and now to life. It treats of these upon a single plane, judging one building by standards of constructive skill, another by standards of rhythm and proportion, and a third by standards of practical use or by the moral impulse of its builders. This medley of elements, diverse and uncommensurated as they are, can furnish no general estimate or true comparison of style. | | Doubtless, as a matter of history, architecture has not come into existence in obedience to any a priori esthetic. It has grown up around the practical needs of the race, and in satisfying these it has been deflected, now by the obstinate claims of mechanical laws, now by a wayward search for beauty. But the problem of the architect and that of the critic are here essentially different. The work of the architect is synthetic. He must take into simultaneous account our three ‘ conditions of well-building,’ and find some compromise which keeps a decent peace between their claims. The task of the critic, on the contrary, is one of analysis. He has to discover, define, and maintain the ideal standards of value in each province. ‘Thus the three standards of architecture, united in practice, are separable, and

INTRODUCTION > must be separated, in thought. Criticism of the historical type fails to apply an ideal and consistent analysis, for the insufficient reason that the practice of architecture has, of necessity, been neither consistent nor ideal. Such criticism is not necessarily misleading. Its fault is more often that it leads nowhere. Its judgments may be individually accurate, but it affords us no general view, for it adopts no fixed position. It is neither simple, nor comprehensive, nor consistent. It cannot, therefore, furnish a theory of style. |

The second type of criticism is more dangerous. For the sake of simplicity it lays down some ‘law’ of architectural taste. Good design in architecture, it will say, should ‘express the uses the building is intended to serve’; ‘it should faithfully state the facts of its construction,’ or again it should ‘ reflect the life of a noble civilisation.’ Then, having made these plausible assumptions, it drives its theory to a conclusion, dwells on the examples that support its case, and is willing, for the sake of consistency, to condemn all architecture in which the theory is not confirmed. Such general anathemas are flattering alike to the author and his reader. They greatly simplify the subject. They have a show of logic. But they fail to explain why the styles of architecture which they find it necessary to condemn have in fact been created and admired. Fashion consequently betrays these faultless arguments ; for whatever has once genuinely pleased is likely to be again found pleasing ; art and the enjoyment of art continue in the condemned paths undismayed ; and criticism is left to discover a sanction for them, if it can, in some new theory, as simple, as logical, and as insufficient as the first. ,

The true task of criticism is to understand such esthetic pleasures as have in fact been felt, and then to draw whatever laws and conclusions it may from > that understanding. But no amount of reasoning will create, or can annul, an esthetic experience ; for the aim of the arts has not been logic, but delight. The theory of architecture, then, requires logic ; but it requires, not less, an independent sense of beauty. Nature, unfortunately, would seem to unite these

qualities with extreme reluctance.

: Obviously, there is room for confusion. The ‘condition of delight’ in architecture—its value as an art—may conceivably be found to consist in its firmness, or in its commodity, or in both ; or it may consist in something else different from, yet dependent upon these ; or it may be independent of them altogether. In any case, these elements are, at first sight, distinct. There is no reason, prima facie, to suppose that there exists between them a pre-established harmony, and that in consequence a perfect principle of building can be laid down which should,

INTRODUCTION ens in full measure, satisfy them all. And, in the absence of such a principle, it is quite arbitrary to pronounce dogmatically on the concessions which art should make to science or utility. Unless it can be proved that these apparently different values are in reality commensurable, there ought to be three separate schemes of criticism : the first based on construction, the second on convenience, the third on esthetics. “Each could be rational, complete, and, within its own province, valid. Thus by degrees might be obtained what at present is certainly lacking—the data for a theory of architecture which should not be contradicted at once by the history of taste.

The present study seeks to explain one chapter of that history. It deals with a limited period of architecture, from a single point of view.

The period is one which presents a certain obvious unity. It extends from the revival of classical forms at the hands of Brunelleschi, in the fifteenth century, to the rise of the Gothic movement, by which, four hundred years later, they were eclipsed. The old medizvalism, and the new, mark the boundaries of our subject. At no point in the four centuries which intervened does any line of cleavage occur as distinct as those which sever the history of architecture at these two points. And between them there is no true halting-place. Thus the term ‘ Renaissance | architecture,’ which originally denoted no more than the earlier stages, has gradually and inevitably come to be extended to the work of all this period.

It is true that during these years many phases of architectural style, opposed in aim and contradictory in feeling, successively arose ; but the language in which they disputed was one language, the dialects they employed were all akin; and at no moment can we say that what follows is not linked to what went before by common reference to a great tradition, by a general participation in a single complex of ideas. And incompatible as these several phases—the primitive, classic, baroque, academic, rococo—may at their climax appear to be, yet, for the most part, they grew from one another _by gradual transitions. The margins which divide . them are curiously difficult to define. They form, in fact, a complete chapter in architecture, to be read consecutively and as a whole. But at the two moments with which our study begins and ends, the sequence of architecture is radically cleft. The building of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence marks a clear break with the medizval past, and with it rises a tradition which was never fundamentally deserted, until in the nineteenth century traditionalism itself _ was cast aside.

It is in Italy, where Renaissance architecture was

INTRODUCTION <4 II native, that we shall follow this tradition. The architecture of France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and, in a lesser degree, that of the Georgian period in England, might furnish brilliant examples of the same manner of building. The Italian experiment enabled the architects of France, amid their more favourable environment, to create a succession of styles, in some ways more splendid, and certainly more exquisite and complete. Yet, if we wish to watch architectural energy where it is most concentrated, most vigorous, and most original it is to Italy that we must turn. And in a study which is to deal rather with the principles than with the history of Renaissance architecture, it will be convenient thus to restrict its scope.

From what point of view should this architecture be judged so as best to reveal its unity and its intent ? A general survey of the period will show grounds for deciding that, while a mechanical analysis or a social analysis may throw light on many aspects of Renaissance architecture, it is only an esthetic analysis, and an esthetic analysis in the strictest sense, which can render its history intelligible, or our enjoyment of it complete. If the essence, and not the accidents merely, of this architectural tradition is to be recognised, and some estimate of it obtained that does not wholly misconstrue its idea, this ground of analysis must be consistently maintained. The architecture of the Renaissance, we shall see reason — to conclude, may be studied as a result of practical needs shaped by structural principle; it must be studied as an esthetic impulsion, controlled by esthetic laws, and only by an esthetic criticism to be finally justified or condemned. It must, in fact, be studied as an art.

Here, however, is the true core of the difficulty. The science, and the history, of architecture are studies of which the method is in no dispute. But for the art of architecture, in this strict sense, no agreement exists. The reason has few problems so difficult as those which it has many times resolved. % Too many definitions of architectural beauty have proved their case, enjoyed their vogue, provoked their opposition, and left upon the vocabulary of art their legacy of’ prejudice, ridicule, and confusion. The attempt to reason honestly or to see clearly in architecture has not been very frequent or conspicuous; but, even where it exists, the terms it must employ are hardened with misuse, and the vision it invokes is distorted by all the preconceptions which beset a jaded argument. Not. only do we inherit the wreckage of past controversies, but those controversies themselves are clouded with the\dust of more heroic combats, and loud with the battle-cries of poetry and morals, philosophy, politics, and science. For it is unluckily the fact that thought about the

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INTRODUCTION 13 arts has been for the most part no more than an incident in, or a consequence of, the changes which men’s minds have undergone with regard to these more stimulating and insistent interests. Hardly ever, save in matters of mere technique, has architecture been studied sincerely for itself. Thus the simplest estimates of architecture are formed through a distorting atmosphere of unclear thought. Axioms, holding true in provinces other than that of art, and arising historically in these, have successively been extended by a series of false analogies into the province of architecture ; and these axioms, unanalysed and mutually inconsistent, confuse our actual experience at the source.

To trace the full measure of that confusion, and if possible to correct it, is therefore the first object of _ this book. We enter a limbo of dead but still haunting controversies, of old and ghostly dogmatisms, which most effectively darken the counsel of critics because their presence is often least perceived. It is | time that these spectres were laid, or else, by whatever necessary libations of exacter thinking, brought honestly to life.

The path will then be clear to attempt, with less certainty of misconception, a statement of the esthetic values on which Renaissance architecture is based. |

To follow, in concrete detail, this Architecture of

Humanism, to see how the principles here sketched out are confirmed by the practice of the Italian builders, and to trace their gradual discovery, may be the task of another volume.

Chapter I Renaissance Architecture

THE architecture of Europe, in the centuries during which our civilisation was under the sway of classical prestige, passed in a continuous succession through phases of extraordinary diversity, brevity and force. Of architecture in Italy was this most particularly true. The forms of Brunelleschi, masterful as they appeared when, by a daring reversion of style, he liberated Italian building from the alien traditions of the north, seem, in two generations, to be but the hesitating precursors of Bramante’s more definitive art. Bramante’s formula is_ scarcely asserted, the poise and balance of classic proportion is scarcely struck, before their fine adjustments are _ swept away upon the torrent that springs from Michael Angelo. In the ferment of creation, of which Italy from this time forth is the scene, the greatest names count, relatively, for little. Palladio, destined to provide the canon of English classic building, and to become, for us, the prime interpreter of the antique, here makes but a momentary stand among the contending creeds. His search for form, 15 though impassioned, was too reactionary, his conclusions too academic and too set, for an age when creative vigour was still, beyond measure, turbulent. With that turbulence no art that was not rapid and pictorial in its appeal could now keep pace. The time was past when an architecture of such calculated restraint as Sammichele had foreshadowed could capture long attention ; and the art of Peruzzi, rich though it was with never-exhausted possibilities, seems to have perished unexplored, because, so to say, its tempo was too slow, its interest too unobtrusive. Vignola, stronger perhaps than these, is before long forgotten in Bernini. Architecture becomes a debatable ground between the ideals of structure and decoration, and from their fertile conflict new inventions are ever forthcoming to please a rapidly -tiring’, taste. Fashions die; |but “the

Renaissance itself, more irresistible than any force which it produced, begets its own momentum, and passes on, with almost the negligent fecundity of nature, self-destructive and self-renewing.

We are confronted with a period of architecture at once daring and pedantic, and a succession of masters the orthodoxy of whose professions is often equalled only by the licence of their practice. ‘In spite of its liberty of thought, in spite of its keen individualism, the Renaissance is yet an age of authority; and Rome, but pagan Rome this time, is once more the arbiter. Every architect confesses allegiance to the antique; none would dispute the inspiration of Vitruvius. For many the dictates of the Augustan critic have the validity of a papal deliverance upon a point of faith. Yet their efforts to give expression to this seemingly identical enthusiasm are contradictory in the extreme. Never were the phases of a single art more diverse. For to consistency the Renaissance, with all its theories, was vitally indifferent. Its energy is at every moment so intense that the forms, not of architecture alone, but of every material object of common use, are pressed into simultaneous and sympathetic expression; yet it is guided on no sure or general course. Its greater schemes too often bear evidence to this lack of continuity, this want of subordination to inherited principle. Upon the problem of St. Peter’s were engaged | the minds of Bramante, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Peruzzi, Sangallo, Fontana, Maderna and Bernini. So much originality could not, without peril, be focussed at a single point; and those of Bramante’s successors who were fortunate enough to carry their schemes into execution, obscured, if they did not ignore, the large idea which he had bequeathed to them.

The history of St. Peter’s is typical of the period. Shaped by a desire as powerful as it is undefined, its inventive impulse remains unexhausted, and style succeeds to style in the effort to satisfy the B workings of an imagination too swift and restless to abide the fulfilment of its own creations. In this the Renaissance stands alone. The medizval Gothic had indeed been equally rapid, and equally oblivious of its past, so rapid and so oblivious that few of its principal buildings were completed in the style in which they were begun. Nevertheless it pursued one undeviating course of constructive evolution. Beside this Scientific zeal the achievement of the Italian builders might appear, at first sight, to be as confused in aim as it was fertile in invention. Contrast it with the cumulative labour, the intensive concentration, by which the idea of Greek architecture, ever reiterated, was sharpened to its perfection, and the Renaissance in Italy seems but a pageant of great suggestions. Set it beside the antique styles of the East, compare it with the monumental immobility which for eighteen centuries was maintained in the architectural tradition of Egypt, and it might pass for an energy disquieted and frivolous. Yet, at every instant in the brief sequence of its forms, it is powerful and it is convinced ; and from the control of its influence Europe has attempted to free itself in vain.

We shall seek without success, among conditions external to art, for causes adequate to an effect so varied, so violent, and so far-reaching. The revolutions which architecture underwent in Italy, from the oe ~~ fifteenth to the eighteenth century, corresponded to no racial movements ; they were unaccompanied by social changes equally sudden, or equally complete}. they were undictated, for the most part, by any exterior necessity ; they were unheralded by any new or subversive discovery whether in the science of construction or in the materials at its command. All these, and other such conditions, did indeed contribute to the architectural result. Sometimes they set their limits to what was accomplished, sometimes they provided its opportunity. But none of them separately, nor all in conjunction, will sufficiently explain the essential character of the whole movement, or of each successive step, nor afford any clue to the sequence of its stages. They are like the accidents of a landscape which might shape the course of a wandering stream. But the architecture of Italy is a river in the flood. Race, politics, the changes of society, geological facts, mechanical laws, do not _ exhaust the factors of the case. Taste—the disinterested enthusiasm for architectural form—is something which these cannot give and do not necessarily control. Nevertheless it is by reference to these external factors that the architectural forms of the Renaissance are persistently explained. |

Let us see how far such explanations can carry us. It is probably true that a ‘ Renaissance’ of architecture in Italy was, on racial grounds, inevitable.

Already in the twelfth century there had been a false dawn of classic style. Indeed, it seems evident that medizeval art could exercise but a temporary dominion among peoples who, however little of the authentic Roman strain they might legitimately boast, yet by the origin of their culture stood planted in Roman civilisation. Classic forms in Italy were indigenous and bound to reappear. And this fact is important. It enables us to dismiss that unintelligent view of Renaissance architecture, once fashionable, and still occasionally put forward, which regards it as a pedantic affectation, or perverse return to a manner of building that was alien and extinct. But it is a fact which in no way helps us to understand the precise form of classic culture which the Renaissance assumed. It does not explain the character, number, and variety of its phases. And it tells nothing of classic culture in itself. Racial considerations are here too general and too vague.

The field of politics might seem more fruitful. The growth of the new style is undoubtedly associated, at Florence, Milan, Naples and other city states, with the rise to power of the Italian ‘ tyrants,’ themselves another echo of antiquity, and another characteristic expression of the Renaissance, with its cult for individuality and power. Cosimo the Great, whom Michelozzo followed into exile at Venice, Lorenzo, the protector of Giuliano da Sangallo,