Applied psychology : an introduction to the principles and practice of education

Front matter

by

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

AN INTRODUCTION

Preface

This volume has been prepared at the request of many teachers and Inspectors that I should publish some of my lectures on the Psychology, Principles and Practice of Education, which have been given from time to time before Teachers' Associations. It was urged that though there are many excellent books on general Psychology, there is still room for one which more directly meets the needs of the teacher. Some of these work's are too abstract and deal with philosophical questions that very remotely concern the science of education ; others are too superficial, in their attempts to make psychology easy, they have made it worthless for the educator as well as for the student of philosophy. Most writers on psychology declare that a knowledge of that subject is indispensable in the training of the teacher ; but it must be confessed that the ordinary teacher, even after reading psychologies that claim to be specially prepared for teachers, fails to see the direct bearing of the subject on the work of instruction.

What is wanted, say the teachers who have the worth of psychology so often dinned in their ears, is a more practical work, that is, one that will show explicitly the relation of psychology to education, and give the teacher a clearer and more thorough knowledge of the principles which underlie true methods of instruction. It would be too much to expect that vi

PREFACE.

this volume will fully meet these requirements ; but it is hoped that teachers will find in it some justification of the opinion now generally held by educationists, and tersely expressed by Herbert Spencer, that " with complete knowledge of the subject which a teacher has to teach, a co-essential thing is a knowledge of psychology ; and especially of that part of psychology which deals with the evolution of the faculties."

Attention may be called to certain features of the book :

1. The general mode of treatment in the part on mental science is that of Professor Dewey, whose work on Psychology has been so well received by students of philosophy. In preparing an analysis of lectures on Educational Psychology, I consulted the lamented Professor Young, who, while favouring me with his own ideas on the subject, specially recommended Dewey's " Psychology." On the basis of that work, accordingly, lectures were prepared and delivered before Teachers' Associations ; perhaps it is not too much to say that the deep interest these lectures have awakened among teachers is a fair test of the practical worth of the method.

2. The book is not a series of baby-talks on mind. ,The psychology which requires no thinking is worthless for both teacher and student. If " education is the hardest and most difficult problem ever proposed to man," its science cannot be mastered without thought. But while the book has not ignored scientific method — and so may not be useless as an introduction to more advanced work — the subject, it is hoped, has been so plainly illustrated that it will prove interesting and intelligible to the general reader and certainly to any student of common industry and ability.

PREFACE.

Vll

3. As intimated, an attempt has been made to make the book of practical value to teachers. Besides the deduction of educational principles from each important topic as discussed, there is a summary chapter which gives a clear and concise view of the Basis, Aims and Methods of Instruction, as grounded on psychology.

4. It is believed that the chapters on the Method of Interrogation will show still more clearly the relation of psychology to educational method, and prove helpful to the teacher who wishes to acquire skill in the art of questioning, the ars artium of his calling.

5. The chapter on Kindergarten Work and Self-Instruction in Public Schools, abounds, it is thought, in hints and suggestions which will be found of real value in the practical work of the school-room. The plans and work recommended have stood the test of experience ; if faithfully carried out they will lighten the labour of both teachers and pupils, and greatly increase the efficiency of the public schools.

6. The outline methods on some important branches — based on explicit psychological principles — will, perhaps, prove more serviceable to the teacher than a whole volume of empirical " ways and devices. v

7. The full analytical table of contents will help the student to such a mastery of educational principles as established in this volume that he will be fairly able to test independently any of the innumerable methods which are urged upon his attention by distinguished inventors.

To Professor Dewey, whose book on Psychology, — already mentioned — should be read by every student of the subject, viii

PREFACE.

I must express my obligations for most valuable assistance in the preparation of this work.

For the practical part of the chapter on Kindergarten work and on geography, my thanks are due to Mr. J. Suddaby, who is regarded as one of our most progressive teachers, and whose work — which I have often inspected — has placed the Berlin Model School in the front rank of training schools.

For nearly forty years the Professional training of teachers has been— perhaps from the force of circumstances — largely empirical and imitative ; the essence of this method of training may be expressed by the single formula, " Observe and Imitate." This has made teaching a mere " trade," and, as Mr. Fitch says, " teaching is the sorriest of all trades though the noblest of all professions." But it has been, and is, plainly the policy of the Hon. G. VV. 'Ross to " change all that," to insist on a knowledge of the laws, principles and results of mental evolution as a necessary part of a teacher's preparation, to make professional training something worthy of the name by placing it on a rational, i\e., a psychological basis, and, in a word, to substitute for a " sorry trade " the noblest of professions. I sincerely hope that this book will help, in some degree, to give effect to that wise and far-seeing policy.

Toronto, March, 1889.

CHAPTER I. Psychology and its Relations to the Teacher

I. — The Educational Importance of Psychology.

I.. It is the Science of Mind to be Educated I

(Formal Definition and Discussion of Methods) ... 2

2. It Reveals the Processes upon which Educational Methods

must be Based 2

0. Definition of Method.

b. Source of Value of Methods.

c. True and False Methods.

II. — The Educational Limitations of Psychology.

1. As a Science it is Generic, while Teaching Deate with Indi-

viduals 4

2. It is Theoretic, while Teaching is Practical 5

III. — The Treatment of Psychology Adopted. 5

A. Discussion of Raw Material or Basis. »

B. Of Processes.

C. Of Products.

CHAPTER II. The Bases of Psychical Life (A )

These Bases are Three— Sensation, Interest and Impulse 6

I.— Sensation.

1. Definition — Contains Three Factors 6

2. As an element in Knowledge it is :

a. Immediate y

b, Presentative j

X

Contents

3. Characteristics :

Quality, Intensity, Tone, Extensity. Definitions of each... 8

4. Conditions :

Introduction

I.—Olassification of Contents of our Minds 24

Simultaneous Groups.

Successive Uncontrolled Trains.

Successive Controlled Trains,.

xii

CONTENTS.

II.— Classification of Processes Corresponding to these Contents 25

Non-Voluntary Attention.

Association.

Voluntary Attention.

The Processes.

I. Non- Voluntary Attention.

1. Definition , 26

2. Conditions of Non- Voluntary Attention :

a. Natural Interest 26

(/.) Quantity 27

(it.) Tone 27

b, Acquired Interest 27

(*.) Familiarity 27

(it. ) Novelty 28

(iti.) Familiarity and Novelty in Connection 28

3. Effects of Non- Voluntary Attention :

a. Negative Effect — Exclusion from Consciousness 29

b. Positive Effects :

(/.) Bringing Differences to Consciousness 30

(it.) Uniting Elements in One Presentation 30

(1) May Unite any Number of Elements. 30

(2) May Unite Elements Unconnected in themselves 31 a. Must be some Activity of Attention 33

b. Teacher must not only Present Material, but must Induce

this Activity 33

c. It must be Induced Indirectly by Arousing Interest 34

d. Interest Accompanies all Mental Activity °. , 34

e. Also the Exercise of Play- Impulse 35

f. Also Dependent upon Relations of Novelty and Familiarity 35

g. Suggestions as to Cultivating Non- Voluntary Attention.. 36

II. Association.

1. Definition 37

2. Conditions — Original Union ; Integration and Redin egration. 38

3. Varieties of Association :

a. Contiguity — External *. . .... 38

(i.) Spatial. (ii.) Temporal.

CONTENTS. Xiii

b. Similarity — Internal 39

Includes Contrast ^ 40

4. Results : —

a. Mental Order 40

b. Mental Freedom 41

Similarity Superior in these respects to Contiguity 41

c. Formation of Habits :

(i.) Definition of Habit 41

(it.) Active and Passive Habits. . , , 42

(in.) Functions of Habit :

(1) Give Self-Control in some Directions 43

(2) Frees Intelligence and Will from Supervision of

Details 43

Based on stages of Intellectual Growth, of which there are Three

a. Is " Mechanical " Stage:

(*'.) Association of Activities rather than of Ideas 44

(ii.) Based on Repetition . 45

(?'».) Has Discipline (which is not Mechanical for its

object) , , 45

Meaning of Discipline 46

(iv.) Relation of Knowing to Doing, in Mechanical

Stage 46

b. Is Stage of Forming Connections

(u) May be between Sense Impressions 47

(it.) Or between Ideas 47

(Hi.) Sensuous Associations Should be Subordinate.... 48 (iv.) Hence, Principle of Teaching only what has Meaning ■ • • 49

(v. ) Importance of Habit in Education 49

c. Is Stage of Culture 49

Based especially on Association by Similarity 50

IH. Voluntary Attention.

Introduction , ( 50 — 52

1. Relation to Non- Voluntary Attention 50

2. Relation to Association 51

3. Early Forms 52

4. Later and More Complex Forms 52

Activities Involved in Attention „ 53

XiV CONTENTS.

1. Adjusting Activity :

(i.) Mind more Interested in one Direction than in

Others 53

(ii.) Hence, Stretches out to what will Satisfy this

Interest 54

(Hi. ) And fixes Certain Groups of Ideas upon Presentation 54

(iv.) This is Dependent upon Past Experience 55

2. Selecting Activity :

(i.) Selects what Meets its Interests 55

(ii) Basis of Selection is According to Kind of Interest . . 56

(Hi.) Variable and Permanent Interests 56

(iv.) Law of Permanent Interest 56

3. Relating Activity :

(i.) Mind Seizes Relations not Presented 57

(ii.) Especially Relations of Unity and Difference 58

(tw.) This is Act of Comparison 58

(iv. ) Meaning of Unification 58

(v.) Meaning of Discrimination . . . 59

(vi. ) Goal of Attention , . 59

III.— Educational Principles.

1. Need of Activity to Prevent Mind Wandering 60

2. Need of Permanence or Continuity of Interest 60

3. Need of Store of Ideas in Mind akin tc Object of Attention. . . 61

4. Need of Arousing this Store of Ideas . , 61

5. Failures in real Attention when these Conditions are not met . . 62

6. Need that the Mind move along Related Points 63

When the Mind Notices or discovers Relations, it is paying

Attention 63

7. Suggestions as to Ways of gaining Attention 64

IV— Apperception and Retention.

The Psychical Processes affect Mind and affect Material Known .... 65

Illustration of Apperception 66

Illustration of Retention 66

Mutual Relations 67

I. Retention:

a. Nature 67

b. Forms Mental Power 68

c. Forms Dynamical Associations or Tend^xicies 68

CONTENTS. XV

2. Apperception:

a. Nature 69

b. Basis of Growth of Knowledge 69

0. End of Education is Mental Development — Retention .... 70

b. But this occurs through Development of Knowledge — Ap-

perception 70

c. Learning Depends upon Proper Presentation of Material

and upon Proper Preparation of Mind 7 1

d. Apperception and Retention form Mental Function, Habit

and Character. . 71

CHAPTER IV. Forms of Intellectual Development

(First Division of C or Mental Products.) § 1.— Principles of Intellectual Development. I.— Development of Intelligence is from the Presentative to the Representative 74

II —And from the Sensuous to the Ideal 74

1. Idealizing Activity *, . . 75 a. Necessity of Interpretation 76

b. Necessity of Assimilation 76

III.— And from the Vague and Particular to the Definite

and Universal . . 77

1. Meaning of Particular and General. . 78

2. The Definite and Universal Constituted by Relations 79 a% Necessity of Defining Knowledge 80

(i.) Distinction of Definite Object and Definite Knowledge 80

(ii.) Definite Knowledge must come after Indefinite ;

Details after Outlines 81

(Hi. ) Mind's Analytic Power Defines Knowledge 82

CONTENTS.

b. Necessity of Connecting Knowledge 83

Mind's Synthetic Power Connects 83

c. Necessity of both Universal and Particular Factor. Re-

lated Facts 83

d. Necessity of Treating Intellectual Faculties as Successive

Developments of Same Principle . ; 84

These Successive Developments are : (i.) Perception which is :

(1) Both Presentative and Representative 85

(2) Sensuous and Ideal and 85

(3) Related * 85

(ii.) Memory which is :

(1) More Representative than Peception 86

(2) More Ideal and 86

(3) Expresses more Relations «... 86

(Hi. ) Imagination which is :

(1) Based upon Memory . 87

(2) But is more Representative and Ideal 88

(3) And Involves Wider Relations 88

(iv. ) Thinking which is :

(1) Most Representative or Symbolic of all Stages. . 89

(2) Most Ideal and 89

(3) Expresses Most Relations 90

Hence, the Educational Principle is to Develop

all by Same Methods 90

2.— Stages of Intellectual Development— Training of

Perception.

,— Considered in Itself 91

1. Should be Accurate and Full 91

2. Should be Independent 92

3. Should Form Habit of Observation 92

[.—Considered in Relation to other Stages.

I. Must be made Basis of Representative Knowledge 93

0. Hence requires large Store of Perceptions prior to Instruction in wholly Representative Ideas 94

b. That all Representative Ideas be Illustrated by Perceptions « 94

CONTENTS. Xvii

c. Otherwise What is Learned is :

(i) Meaningless 94

(ii) Uninteresting ., 94

(Hi) Productive of Mind Wandering 95

§ 3.— Stages of Intellectual Development, continued- Training of the Memory. Contains two Factors :

I. -Learning 95

General Principle ; Train Memory by the Methods in which Studies

are Appropriated 95

This Principle may be applied :

1. To Memorizing bare Separate Facts 96

2. To Memorizing Consecutive Statements of Facts 96

a. Evils of Memorizing by Sheer Force of Repetition are :

(i) It Employs only Sensuous Association , 97

(ii.) It Leaves the Mind Passive 97

(Hi. ) It Burdens the Mind 97

(iv.) It Leads to Mind Wandering 97

b. Proper Methods of Memorizing rely :

(i.) Upon Association of Ideas 98

(H. ) Upon Analysis and Synthesis 98

3. To Memorizing Relations of Complex Ideas 99

II. Recollecting— Depends upon

1. Repetition . 100

Reviews.

2. Attention to Connected Ideas 100

§ 4.— Stages of Intellectual Development, continued- Training of Imagination.

I— Necessity of Indirect Training

1. Because of its Free Character 101'

2. Because of its Individual Character 102

3. Because of its Unconscious Growth. 102

II— This Indirect Training is Brought About—

1. Through Cultivation of Expression of Imagination 102

2. Through Cultivation of the Feelings that Stimulate Imagination:

a. Due partly to Influence of Teacher 103

b. Partly to Development of Religious Emotions 103 xviii

CONTENTS.

3. Through Providing Material to be Worked Upon :

a. Natural Scenes 104

b. Studies like Geography and History 104

c. Study of Literature. 104

§ 5 —Stages of Intellectual Development— continued- Training of Thought.

I.— Indirect Training Brought About by Training other Lower Stages

Illustrated by :

1. Generalization involved in Perception 105

2. Relations involved in all Knowledge. 106

3. The Grouping of Facts brought about by Retention 107

II —Direct Training.

1. Given by Language 107

a. Words are Products of Thought 108

b. Structure of Sentences a Product of Thought 108

c. Connected Discourse a Product of Thought 109

2. Given by Science 109

a. Physical . . 109

b. Mathematical , . 109

CHAPTER V. The Forms of Emotional Development

(Second Division of C or Mental Products.)

I. — Conditions of Interest.

Feeling Accompanies Activity IIO

1. Spontaneity of Activity no

2. Strength of Activity Ill

3. Change of Activity in

Monotony and Variety.

4. Harmony of Activities 112

II. — Principles of Emotional Growth.

In General the same as Intellectual 112

CONTENTS. xix

1. Widening of Feeling :

a. Through Transference 1 13

b. Through Unconscious Sympathy. 113

c. Through Conscious Sympathy 114

2. Deepening of Feeling :

a. Through Repetition 114

b. Through Cooperation 1 14

III.— The Forms, or Stages, of Emotional Growth.

1. Intellectual 115

a. Leading to the Acquiring of Knowledge :

(i.) Wonder 115

(ii.) Curiosity 116

p. Resulting from Acquisition of Knowledge, Feeling of

Freedom, or of Self-Command 116

2. Aesthetic 117

a. Factors of Beautiful Object :

(i.) Adaptation 117

(ii.) Economy 11S

(Hi.) Harmony 11S

(iv.) Freedom 1 18

Factors of Aesthetic Feeling ;

Universality and Ideality 119

3. Personal 119

a. Social.

(i) Regard for Self 1 19

(ii) Regard for Others 120

Antipathy 120

Sympathy ... 120

(1) Origin of Sympathy 120

(2) Development of Sympathy 121

, b. Moral.

(i) Contents:

Right ness, Obligation, Approbation 121

(it) Origin 121

\iii) Result is the Formation of Moral Groups or Communities e 122

The School :

(1) Is Continuation of Family 123

(2) Is Preparation for State 123

XX

CONTENTS.

(iv ) Training :

(1) Should be Concrete . 123

(2) Punishment should aim at Development of Moral

Feelings 124

(3) Should be Based on Personal Affections 124

e. Religious :

(i.) Dependence .. . 124

(ii.) Peace 124

(Hi.) Faith « 125

CHAPTER VI. Forms of Volitional Development

(Third Division of C or Psychical Products.)

Introduction. — Analysis of Volitional Act . . . 125 — 127

Volitional Act is Intelligent 125

Volitional Act is Controlled / 126

The Reason is that it has an End 126

Definition — Volition-Impulses Controlled by Conception of an End 127

I —Factors of Volitional Development.

I. Formation of Idea of End , 127

a. Beginning of Idea '.. 127

b. Completion of Idea '. 128

c. Subjection of Impulses to Idea, or Training of Impulses. . 129

(i.) Impulses Trained through Development of Intellect 129

(ii.) Training of Impulses reacts upon Intellect 129

(in.) Knowing and Doing are, therefore, Correlative.. . . 129 (iv.) When Trained Correlatively, Education is Rendered Practical. . . 130

(v.) Education must rest upon Natural Impulses 131

(vi.) And consists in Disciplining them 132

(vii.) Partly by External Arrangements. 133

(viii. ) Partly by Internal Arrangements.

(ix.) And has its end in Self-Control or Freedom. ..... 133

CONTENTS. Xxi

2. Formation of Desire 134

(Desire is Emotional, corresponding to Intellectual Idea.)

a. Origin of Desires - . . 134

b. Object of Desires., 135

c. Training of Desires :

(i. ) Desires Trained through Development of Feeling. . 135

(ii. ) By Satisfying or Thwarting them 1 36

{Hi.) Awakening Idea of Possibilities 136

(iv.) Through Cultivation of Imagination , 137

Imagination Widens and Strengthens. ... c ... . . . 137

3. Realization of Desired Idea . 138

a. Simple Case— End Suggests its Means by Association.. . . 138

b. Complex Cases — Conflict of various Desired Ends 138

Conflict Settled by ;

(i.) Deliberation 138

(ii.) Effort 139

(Hi.) Choice 140

4. Realization of Desired Ends forms Character or Self-Control.. 140

a. Character is the Volitional Aspect of Retention 140

b. Choice is the Volitional Aspect of Apperception 140

c. Hence Character and Choice are Reciprocal 140

d. Training of Character :

(i.) Through Habitual Action 141

(ii.) Through Influence of Educator upon Habits 142

(Hi. ) Through Self- Reliance 142

(iv.) Through Recognition of Law 143

(v.) Through Conception of Ideal Self 144

II.-- Stages of Volitional Development or of Self-Oontrol . . 144

I. Physical :

a. Relation to Moral , , 145

b. Its Process :

(i. ) Differentiation of Impulses 146

(ii.) Interconnection of Impulses 146

c. Its Results 146

(i.) Idea of Act more Extended and Definite 146

(ii.) Abilities and Tendencies are Created I46

(iii ) Amount of Required Stimulus is Lessened. 147 xxii

CONTENTS.

2. Prudential Control :

a. Definition 147

b. Results.

(i.) Action is more Deliberate 148

(ii.) More Unified 148

More Determined and Persevering. ... . 148

(tv.) More Intense or Energetic 149

3. Moral Control :

a. Definition 149

k. Based on Physical and Prudential Acts . . 150

c. Which become Moral when Subordinated to Motives of

Right 150

(*.) Hence, Moral Action is Constituted by Motive 151

(ii.) Hence, Involves Responsibility. 151

(Hi.) Hence, Forms Character, as Physical and Prudential Acts do not 152

(iv.) Hence, in reacting, Develops Sense of Obligation. . 152

Growth of this Sense 152

d. Moral Action is Secured :

(i.) By Habitual Action 153

{ii,) By Use of Lower Motives 153

fiii.) By Appeal to Personal Affections 154

C, Results of Moral Control :

(i.) Generic Choice 154

(ii.) Automatic Decision 154

(Hi.) Regulation of Desires 154

(iv.) Effective Execution 155