Ancient Rome and its connection with the Christian religion

Front matter

~ .

CONNECTION

S.RQ.Rl

Preface

E City of Rome, as the subject of a volume of history, belongs bv a right that Roman history

7 J J °. - . D . the common

no one will ever be able to set aside, to the entire human family in all its various property of all

divisions into nations, tribes, and languages, as a precious common property, the natlons' which all may freely enjoy, but none can claim as specially their own. When¬ ever any particular language passes from the general domain of barbarism within the pale of civilisation, the first public proof which it gives of the change for the better that has taken place, is, when it becomes a medium through which Roman history can be taught in its schools, and through which it can also have a place given to it on the shelves of its libraries as a household possession.

In each nation where this beneficial change has taken place, the phenomena abovemen tioned are always observable. Roman history domineers over education in every school, and claims the post of honour on all library shelves. Even if Roman history, by reason of the absence of any claim of inspiration that can be made for the Greek and Latin sources from which it is derived, must always in a certain sense bow before the superior prerogatives of the history which is taken from the inspired books of the Hebrew Canon of Scripture, it possesses nevertheless a clear prerogative of its own, by which it challenges the homage of the entire human family in a manner that is not shared The prerogaby any other history. The challenge does not indeed fall within the region of inspiration, the history over all exclusive prerogative of the Sacred Scriptures, but it is not on this account the less essentially other hlstorya part of the Divine order of events by which the world is governed.

The Hebrew city of Jerusalem and its people have been cast off from their dignity as instruments The rejection in the fulfilment of the counsels of God in consequence of their crime of Deicide, and the city of anlthe^ection Rome has been chosen to fill the place of the rejected Jerusalem, in order to be constituted in its °fe^dome in its stead the central seat of government for the religion of the Christ, whom Jerusalem crucified when living, and refused to acknowledge as the promised Messias after His resurrection from the dead.

The consequence of this has been twofold. The Hebrew history with wdiich the gift of Divine inspiration had up to this time been united, has been ever since totally cut off from its former life-giving source, and has passed into the universal hissing and reproach of all mankind, while that of Rome has not only lived on, but has been raised to a dignity of a far higher order. Faithless and apostate Jerusalem has been dispossessed of that which she had ; while Rome, the city that under her former military tenure had made herself the centre of unity for the nations, and the supreme fountain of their civil honour, pacification, and jurisprudence, has been exalted to become the centre of Christian unity for the nations, and the supreme fountain to them of the higher blessings and graces of the Gospel of Christ, — thereby verifying, on the world- wide scale of universal history, the words of Christ, “ But I say to you, that to every one that hath there shall be given, and he shall abound, but from him that hath not, there shall be taken away even that which he hath ” (Luke xix. 26).

The necessary consequence of this Divine election of Rome, to remain in future the instrument of the counsels of God upon earth in the place of the rejected Jerusalem, is, that its history becomes onTcontlnuous one entire history, which is still in course of progress; to be divided indeed for purposes of study into stuif^progress separate and intelligibly distinct stages of its growth, but with these several stages, all derived from and preserving an unbroken continuity with, its first beginning.

No apology can be offered by a Christian writer for the plan of the pre sent volume.

A sequel in con templation by which the his¬ tory would be brought down to A.D. 330.

viii Preface.

Rome as a history will thus have —

(1.) Its period of infancy under its kings, during which it consolidated itself on a firm basis, as an already partly cosmopolitan city among its neighbour cities of the Italian peninsula.

(2.) Its period of youth as a republic, during which it acquired its pre-eminence and hegemony among the cities of Italy.

(3.) Its period of adolescence, during which its invincible legions passed outside the limits of Italy on their mission to establish the city as the centre of government for the pacifica¬ tion and civilisation of the nations of the world.

(4.) Its period of manhood, during which it upheld the peace of the nations of the world, and gave to them the person of the Imperator of its armies as the living personal representa¬ tive of their unity.

It is during this period that the change is almost imperceptibly brought about, by which the dynasty of the Christian Sovereign Pontiffs succeeds to the possession of the city, while the ancient military Rome dwindles away by equally imperceptible stages previous to its final extinction. The wrork of the precursor is done, and Rome henceforward, under the line of its Christian Sovereign Pontiffs, has a sacred mission to discharge for all nations and people, that can only end with the overthrow of the world.

No word of apology or defence could here be either offered or even asked from any Christian writer, for the plan of a volume of history in which ancient Rome appears in the character of a . Precursor, sent by the Divine Providence which governs the world of men, to prepare a reception for the Gospel of Christ amongst the nations of the earth. Should the atheists and the unbelievers of the world fail to be pleased with the assignment of this character to the ancient military city, it is of course open to them to dispute its justice in whatever way they may think proper. Ancient Rome herself, however, wrould but say to the author of the volume that might thus fall under their displeasure —

“ Tu ne cede malis sed contra audentior ito.’’

It is also a circumstance, a passing notice of which is not to be omitted, that the reader may expect to meet with traces in the volume of a sequel being in contemplation, by which the narrative would be continued through the ten great persecutions of the Church down to the date of the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople (a.d. 330). It must be obvious how congruously the sufferings and the victory of the holy martvrs of Rome during this period would crown the subject of the “ Connection of the military city with the Christian religion,” and the author hopes for the aid of the prayers and good wishes of all his Christian readers that, with the help of God, the contemplated sequel may one day be completed.

TABLE

OF CONTENTS.

Chapter I. General Introduction

PAGE

I. The General design of Divine Providence in causing the name of Pontius Pilate to have a place assigned to it in the Apostles’ creed. II. The Christian religion the one universal historical religion of the nations of the world. III. The Christian duty of labouring to acquire a knowledge of the history of the Christian religion. IV. Enforcement of this truth from the example of the Hebrew people. V. Divine Provi¬ dence, by associating the name of the Roman procura¬ tor of the province of Judea who passed the sentence of death upon Jesus Christ with the universal formula of Christian belief, appears to invite all the Christian people in every nation to study the providential con¬ nection subsisting between the city of Rome and the Christian religion. VI. Jesus Christ warns His fol¬ lowers of their prospect of martyrdom in the Roman Empire. VII. No argument against the Providence of God must be suffered to arise from the great diminu¬ tion of truths in the religions of the Gentile World 3-1 1

Chapter II. The Destiny Of Rome

I. External magnificence of the city which Divine Provi¬ dence constituted the nurse and guardian of the first beginnings of the Christian Society. II. Origin from a singularly small beginning. III. The Ancient Romans partially aware of the destiny of their city.

IV. The Rome of Romulus an asylum for refugees from different nationalities. V. Triple parallel with the Church. VI. The durability of the work of Romu¬ lus challenges the world’s philosophy to account for it.

VII. Brief reference to the sceptical German theory of the “ Early Roman Legend ” .... 12-19

Chapter III

AN OUTLINE OF THE PERIOD OF THE SEVEN KINGS OF ROME (B.C. 753-509).

I. The unbroken continuity of the providential destiny of the city of Rome from its first foundation to the end of the world, does not admit of any portion of the history of the city being rightly understood, if it is allowed to be completely separated and isolated from the general history of the city and its destiny as a whole. II. The foundation of the city under its first king and founder

PAGE

Romulus. III. Numa Pompilius the framer of the ecclesiastical constitution of Rome, and the founder of its code of civil and ecclesiastical law. IV. The reign of Tullus Hostilius. V. The reign of Ancus Marcius.

VI. The first Tarquin (Tarquinius Priscus), and the great architectural works of his reign. VII. The reign of Servius Tullius, and the significance of his constitu¬ tional legislation. VIII. The last Tarquin, commonly known as Tarquin the Proud, and the final expulsion of the royal dynasty from the city. IX. The judg¬ ment of Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the religion of the city. X. The peculiar characteristics of the Roman gens, and the nature of the relation between the Roman patron and client .... 20--35

Chapter IV

THE CITY AS A REPUBLIC UP TO THE PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WARS BETWEEN MARIUS AND SULLA (B.C. 509-88).

I. The four centuries during which the city as a Republic under the direction of its Senate acquired sovereignty over the largest portion of the known world. II. The special significance of the struggle with Carthage for the mastery over the world. III. The war of the city as a Republic against the Tarquin family. IV. The solidity of the Constitution founded by Servius Tullius.

V. A conspiracy in Rome in favour of the Tarquins.

VI. The issue of the combat with the Tarquin family and their allies (1), The cities of Tarquinii and Veii (2), Porsenna (3), The Latins. VII. Signal error of modem historians in speaking of Rome as a nation ; Rome from the beginning is a city independent of all nationality. VIII. The history of Rome from this point falls into two divisions ; (1) Its external history, or its career of conquest of the nations ; (2) Its internal history, or the gradual building up and consolidation of its constitution and jurisprudence. IX. The settled conviction all Romans entertained of the perpetuity of their city. X. Internal history of the city full of trouble and agitation, St. Augustine’s estimate of it. XI. St.

Augustine’s estimate controversial, and not confirmed by the subsequent universal verdict. XII. All modern civilisation founded on that of the ancient city of Rome.

XIII. Roman history from the Christian point of view is one history with its several stages. XIV. Dante the exponent of the Christian view. XV. The particular caution which Dante appends to his claims for ancient Rome, and the opposite kind of caution which is suited

to our age of the world ..... 36-5C

X

Chapter V

CARTHAGE, AND THE EVENTS WHICH PRECEDED AND LED TO THE WAR WITH ROME, FOR THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE WORLD.

. PAGE

I. Carthage and its career belongs to universal history.

II. Probable date and origin of the city. III. An extract from Professor Heeren. IV. A digression on the foundation of the mother city, Tyre. V. Ezechiel’s description of Tyre, and prediction of its ruin. VI.

Historical summary of the career of Carthage. VII.

Outline of the Constitution of Carthage. VIII. The causes of Carthage’s downfall begin to manifest them¬ selves. IX. The thread of the history of Rome is resumed. X. The internal collision between the patricians and the plebeians. XI. Summary of the external history of the city and its wars up to the out¬ break of war with Carthage . 51-65

Chapter VI

THE WAR BETWEEN CARTHAGE AND ROME FOR THE SOVEREIGNTY OVER THE WORLD, AND THE TOTAL DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE.

I. The essential difference between Rome and Carthage : Rome has a mission to pacify and civilise by her con¬ quests, Carthage is the worshipper of mammon. II.

Brief outline of the three Punic wars. III. Remote causes which led to the war. IV. Immediate cause of the outbreak of war. V. The resolve of the Romans to build a fleet. VI. The determination of the Romans to carry the war into Africa. VII. The noble example of Regulus. VIII. Termination of the first Punic war.

IX. General reflections on the second Punic war. X.

How the second Punic war was the sole work of Hamilcar Barca and his son Hannibal. XI. The career of Hamilcar Barca, and his conquest of Spain.

XII. The career of Hannibal : his invasion and vic¬ tories in Italy. XIII. An extract from the Roman historian Florus. XIV. Concluding events of the second Punic war. XV. Scipio and Hannibal face to face before the last decisive battle. XVI. The last Punic war, and the final destruction of Carthage 66-84

Chapter VII

THE OUTBREAK OF CIVIL WAR BETWEEN C. MARIUS AND L. SULLA. THE GREAT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CAREER OF L. SULLA, AS REGARDS THE CONNECTION OF ANCIENT ROME WITH THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

I. The first outbreak of civil war between C. Marius and L.

Sulla. II. Brief summary of the intervening events.

III. An extract from the historian Florus. IV. Testi¬ mony of other Roman writers to the degeneracy of morals at this period. V. The rise and course of the civil war. VI. Lucius Sulla, as victor, inaugurates the policy of the proscription of the lives of his political opponents. VII. Sulla, despairing of the restoration of Rome by legislation, abandons his dictatorship and retires into private life. VIII. The magnitude of the change which the career of L. Sulla introduces into the Constitution of Rome. IX. The bearing of this change upon the connection of ancient Rome with the Christian religion. X. The slow and gradual accomplishment, step by step, of the designs of God . . . 85-93

Chapter VIII. Caius Julius Cesar And His Rise To Supreme Power

PAGE

I. The birth and early career of Julius Ctesar. II. The secret of rising to power in Rome at this time. III.

Julius Caesar is elected Pontifex Maximus. IV.

Pompey the Great and his victories. V. The trium¬ virate of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. VI. The appointment of Caesar to the province of Gaul. VII.

Julius Caesar, like Sulla, is forced to seize upon supreme power. VIII. Victories of Julius Caesar over Pompey and his other opponents. IX. Caesar’s ambi¬ tion fostered by the servility of the Romans. X. Old Republican Rome not entirely extinct ; the conspiracy against Caesar. XI. His assassination in the open Senate. XII. The public dismay in Rome, and the speech of Cicero . qa-ioa

Chapter IX

CAIUS OCTAVIANUS C,ESAR IS PROVIDENTIALLY BORNE FORWARDS BY THE FORCE OF EVENTS TO SUPREME POWER.

I. Rome not ripe for an imperial power in the time of Julius Caesar. II. His successor a mediocrity chosen by Divine Providence to accomplish a work in which the genius of Julius Caesar failed. III. The early career of Caius Octavianus. IV. The incredible degradation of the Roman Senate. V. The first entry of Caius Octavianus into public life. VI. Vacillation and con¬ fusion of the Senate in the appointment of commanders to the provinces of the empire, and the formation of the triumvirate of Octavianus Caesar, Mark Antony, and zEmilius Lepidus. VII. The triumvirate inaugu¬ rate their assumption of power by a sanguinary pro¬ scription of the lives of the citizens. VIII. Further terrible evidence of the degradation of the Senate and the patrician nobility of Rome. IX. Paralysis of Brutus and Cassius and the partisans of Republican Rome. X. The Republican leaders despair of their cause— the battle of Philippi. XI. The leaders of the Republican party lose their cause through their previous resolve to commit suicide. XII. The career of Caius Octavianus after the victory of Philippi. XIII.

The victory of Caius Octavianus and the Senate over Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Caius Octavianus Caesar becomes sole master of the Roman world . 105- 116

Chapter X

“Of a truth Thou art a hidden God. O God, Thou Saviour of Israel.” — Isaias xlv. 15.

THE REASON WHY THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM OF GOD CONCEALS THE FACT OF ITS BEING UPHELD BY DIVINE OMNIPOTENCE UNDER THE FORM OF THE SUPPLANTING ITS PRECURSOR, ANCIENT MILITARY ROME.

I. The appearance on the scene of so extraordinary a power as that of Augustus calls for a pause in the narrative to consider the nature of the relation in which it stands to the Christian religion. II. Special disposition of Divine Providence which appointed the

Contents.

xi

PAGE

universal spread of the expectations of the Gentile world and their fulfilment in the birth of Christ to fall in the reign of Augustus Caesar. III. Brief review of the providential rise and formation of the power of Augustus Caesar. IV. Augustus Caesar no alien usurper, but a legitimate product of the Roman mili¬ tary republic ; his career, consequently, is only a link in the providential chain of events by which the entire power of Rome was made to be the servant of the designs of God. V. Marks of the great superiority of Rome over the preceding imperial powers. VI. Rome the great exemplification in history of the Divine bless¬ ing given to the elder brother Esau : (i) the right to acquire possession of the earth and to cultivate it ; (2) Divine religion, the dew of heaven from above ; (3) the title to wield the sword and to live by it. VII.

An elucidation of the reasons why God appointed His own kingdom to supplant the power and empire of Rome — a necessary preparation to a right understand¬ ing of the facts of our history. VIII. The rule of a veil of concealment thrown over the acts of Divine power in proportion as they approach the Christian religion. IX. The Christian redemption would not have been a mission of mercy to sinners except God had been pleased to adopt the rule of concealing the acts of His omnipotence. X. The concealment thrown over the acts of Divine power a highly profitable dis¬ cipline to the faith of those who believe. XI. The preceding elucidation throws a very necessary light on the patient sufferings of the holy martyrs, in which the cause of God might otherwise run the risk of appearing as entirely trodden under foot. XII. It explains also how faith in those who believe comes to be very greatly raised in point of dignity and merit.

XIII. Lastly, it shows how the study of history is cal¬ culated to become most confirmatory of faith from the testimony which it yields that the will of God is, after all, irresistible, and in the end certain to prevail 117-128

CHAPTER XI. “ The older shall serve the younger.”

AUGUSTUS CAsSAR THE SUPREME LEGISLATOR AND THE LIVING PERSONAL CENTRE OF UNITY OF THE ROMAN WORLD, AND THE CONNECTION OF HIS CAREER WITH THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

I. Acquaintance with the rule of the general concealment of the acts of Divine power a necessary caution for Chris¬ tian students of history. II. Human instruments are employed to carry the designs of God into effect. III.

Augustus Caesar, arrived at the summit, begins to per¬ ceive the necessity for an entirely new order of policy.

IV. Augustus deliberates whether he should not retire into private life. V. A glance at the anxious position of Augustus. VI. The conflicting counsel of Marcus Agrippa and of Mecaenas. VII. Augustus prefers the counsel of Mecaenas. VIII. Considerations on the causes of the great change which took place in the public career of Augustus Caesar. IX. Superficial character of the explanations commonly given of this change. X. Republican Rome is too reasonable not to seek to reconcile itself to the change. XI. Republican Rome and Augustus Caesar mutually coalesce in a com¬ promise which has for its aim the preservation of Rome.

XII. The usual dignity of Rome appears in the manner of its submission to its fate. XIII, Characteristics of the new' career of Augustus Caesar. XIV. The sur¬ render of Republican Rome does not proceed from servility, but from conviction. XV. The judgment of the Compte de Champagny. XVI. Augustus Caesar fulfils

PAGE

the Scripture figure of the older serving the younger.

XVII. Christ the true centre of unity for time and eternity. XVIII. The central seat of judgment of the Christian religion. XIX. The precursor disappears and withers away, and the Divine power succeeds to its place . 129-146

Chapter XII

AUGUSTUS CAESAR THE RESTORER OF THE RELIGION OF ROME, AND THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RE¬ FORMER OF THE ROMAN WORLD. THE CONNEC¬ TION OF HIS CAREER IN THE ABOVE RESPECTS WITH THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

I. A brief recapitulation of the argument of the preceding chapter. II. Augustus Caesar examines the question whether the religion of the city and the empire is likely to be able to support his power. III. The higher Greek education of the Romans productive of scepticism.

IV. The testimony of the statesmen of the Gentile world to the necessity of religion for the government of men.

V. The similar testimony of Roman statesmen. VI.

The advice of Mecaenas to Caius Caesar to take the side of the religion of the city. VII. The objection of the great scandals of the religion of the city. VIII.

Contrary evidence of the universal attachment of the population of the city and empire to the temples and their sacrifices. IX. Caius Caesar supposed to take his stroll through Rome — impression likely to be made on his mind by the sight of its temples.

X. Caius Caesar is supposed to reflect on all that he has seen in his travels of the temples of the Gentile world.

XI. The public patronage of the religion of Rome does not require a personal belief in the power of the gods over the family and private life of Augustus Caesar.

XII. Caius Caesar decides to make himself the repre¬

sentative man of the religion of Rome. XIII. The religion of the city proves itself the protecting power of the career of Augustus. XIV. Augustus as a social reformer— twofold marvel of his career; (1.) That a man of his antecedents should have been the leader of it- XV. (2 ) That a whole world, by nature most indis¬ posed to it, should have felt its influence and been com¬ pelled to yield a partial compliance with it. XVI. The parallel of Israel in the desert. XVII. The first step of Augustus is to restore the Senate. XVIII. An outline of the social evils to which Augustus sought to apply his legal remedies. XIX. The connection of the reforms of Augustus Caesar with the Christian rehSion . 147-168

Chapter XIII

THE COSMOPOLITAN LITERATURE OF THE AUGUSTAN ERA, AND ITS RELATION TO THE CHRISTIAN RELI¬ GION.

I. The chief poets of the Augustan age have a clear percep¬ tion of the immortality of their poetry. II. The unani¬ mous testimony of all civilised nations to the necessity for the study at least of the Latin language. III.

Augustus Caesar regards the influence of literature as an essential auxiliary to his policy of reform. IV.

Cicero an exponent of the ideas of Augustus, v!

Augustus discerns a useful reform in improving the poetry of the hymns sung in religious celebrations. VI.

Horace, the Luui saeculares and the Carmen saeculare.

b

Xll

Contents.

PAGE

VII. Virgil introduced to Augustus. VIII. Virgil and the Georgies. IX. Virgil and the /Eneid. X. A French writer's objection to the character of the hero of the ALneid considered. XI. The reason of the deep interest felt by Augustus in the character of /Eneas, and in the general plan of Virgil’s poem. XII. Importance of the fact that all the Christian nations have delibe¬ rately sanctioned the use of the classics of the Augustan age in their schools. XIII. The use of the classics of Greece and Rome the invariable companion of the Christian religion, and the foundation of the intellectual superiority of the Christian populations over every other.

XIV. The title of Christ on the cross written in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. XV. The poem of the /Eneid a general Christian parable or allegory.

XVI. /Eneas the anticipation of the Christian hero.

XVII. Political reasons for the episode of the descent of

/Eneas to the realms of the dead. XVIII. The parallel between the mission of /Eneas and the Christian mis¬ sions. XIX. “ Ite ait egregias animas,” the purchase of Rome as the Christian metropolis by the blood of the holy Christian martyrs .... 169-193

Chapter XIV

THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GREEK SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. THE REASON OF THEIR ADOPTION BY THE PRACTICAL MIND OF ROME, AND THE NATURE OF BOTH THE PIONEER AND THE PERMANENT SER¬ VICE THEY HAVE RENDERED TO THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

I. The first elements of jurisprudence and literature among the Greeks as described by Homer. II. The Hebrew Republic the predecessor of the nations in literature, civilisation, and jurisprudence. III. Popular ignor¬ ance on the subject of the widespread influence of the Hebrew Republic over the Gentile nations. IV. The Hebrew Republic the candle of God set on a candlestick to give light to the other nations. V. Remarkable synchronism of the dispersion of the Israelites, and the first rise of a Gentile school of philosophy. VI. Pytha¬ goras and the Pythagorean schools. VII. Pythagoras partially anticipates the work of the Christian society in the formation of societies living together in com¬ munity life. VIII. Socrates, and the high estimate he formed of his duties as a teacher. IX. The monothe¬ ism of Socrates the reason of his condemnation to death. X. Plato and the school of the academy. XI.

Aristotle and the Peripatetic school. XII. The Gentile world evinces much greater fear of the school of Aris¬ totle than of Plato. XIII. Epicurus and his school : the singular phenomenon of Epicurus remaining unmolested in Athens during his lifetime. XIV.

Lucretius, the Roman poet, a cordial adherent of the system of Epicurus. Analysis of the motives of his adherence. XV. Zeno and the Stoic school. His universal republic of all nations. XVI. Zeno borrows the idea of the wise man becoming king, priest, and prophet, from the Hebrews. XVli. The Stoic school the principal butt of the satire and ridicule of the Gen¬ tile world. XVIII. Diogenes and the Cynics. XIX.

The Romans are captivated by the services of the Greek philosophers as the teachers and schoolmasters of man¬ kind. XX. The Christian society has succeeded to the possession of the Greek schools of philosophy. XXI.

Nature of the service rendered to the Christian cause by the philosophical schools of the Greeks . 194-218

Chapter XV

THE END OF THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS C/ESAR. THE PROSPERITY OF HIS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND THE MISERIES OF HIS PRIVATE LIFE. THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE INTERVAL (COMPRISING THE REIGNS OF TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, AND THE BEGIN¬ NING OF THE REIGN OF CLAUDIUS) BETWEEN THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS C/ESAR AND THE FIRST COMING OF ST. PETER TO ROME.

PAGE

I. A retrospect on the reasons which the Roman world had for accepting the rule of Augustus Caesar. II. Reasons for thinking Augustus to have been acquainted with the Septuagint version of the Scriptures. III. The last moments of Augustus. IV. Retrospect on the providen¬ tial destiny of the career of Augustus. V. The visita¬ tions of God on the private life of Augustus. VI. The succession of Tiberius. VII. Errors in the popular appreciation of this period of the history. VIII. The moderation displayed by Tiberius in the beginning.

IX. Significance of the impunity with which Tiberius indulged in the vices that marked the latter part of his reign. X. The Christian protest against the vices of Roman society. XI. The evidence of Tacitus as to the degradation of Roman society. XII. A sense of de¬ spair seizes upon the Romans. XIII. Violent death of Tiberius, and accession of Caius Caligula. XIV.

Accession of Claudius on the assassination of Caligula.

XV. Twofold popular error as regards the first forma¬ tion of the Christian society in Rome and the Roman world. XVI. Tacitus and Seneca witness that not¬ withstanding the general degradation there were many surviving elements of the ancient Roman nobility and virtue. XVII. The high estimate St. Paul forms of the nobility of mind of the Roman world. XVIII.

The testimony of Virgil and Horace to this nobility.

XIX. The testimony of the letters of Pliny. XX.

The solid learning and education of the Roman world.

XXI. The remarkable example of Demetrius the cynic, and the estimation in which particular rhetors and public lecturers were held . . . 219-259

Chapter XVI

THE ERECTION OF THE CHAIR OF ST. PETER IN ROME, AND THE FIRST PLANTING OF THE CHRISTIAN SOCIETY IN THE CITY.

I. The twofold importance of the arrival of St. Peter as an epoch in the history : (1.) The first planting of the supreme Christian jurisdiction in Rome ; (2.) The first formal coalition of the two orders of preparation, respec¬ tively committed to the nation of Israel and the city of Rome, in the person of Peter as Bishop of Rome. II.