American political history to the death of Lincoln

Front matter

of the Gheologicys Ss, ah ly sy PRINCETON, N. J. “ty

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Preface

Tue American people have recently awakened to the fact that they have a past of peculiar interest. United States’ History has been declared “dry and stupid and nothing but dates,” but it is now realized that these dates are important landmarks in the world’s progress. All can recall their enjoyment in the study of other lands — of India with its Oriental charm and stirring tales of English valor; of Greece, the home of art and beauty, the abode of gods who so charmingly personified mortal passions ; of Imperial Rome crowning the seven hills with her majestic temples and palaces, and civilizing western Europe; of Italy in the Renaissance; of France under the great Louis and the greater Napoleon; and of England through long years building, stone by stone, the firm foundations of constitutional monarchy. To an imagination fired by these glowing pictures, the backwoodsman in his log-cabin, the Indian fierce and repulsive, the stern Puritan who robbed life of grace and beauty, seemed in comparison very commonplace. But history is no longer a mere record of wars and court intrigues; from the scenic splendor of the past have emerged the forgotten people; in the light of evolution we realize the working out of great principles, and history is no more a glittering pageant, but the irresistible upward movement of mankind. Thus viewed, the history of the United States becomes of deepest interest; for this young nation, freed from the trammels of the past,

Vv vi PREFACE has been striving to solve those great problems which make for the advancement of the race. Perchance we are inclined to smile at that gigantic bronze figure with the uplifted torch, but nevertheless it represents our national idea— Liberty Enlightening the World.

Every book, it has been said, should have a preface wherein is offered an apology for presenting another literary venture. The excuse for this volume is the newly awakened interest in our country’s past. It owes its origin to a course of parlor lectures which resulted from the remark of a cultured woman who entered actively into the opportunities of her New York life. “T have attended,” she declared, “ parlor classes for the study of the great men, the historical epochs, the music, the art, the literature, and even the drama of nearly every land of Europe, but remain lamentably ignorant of the history of my own country. Write a course of lectures upon the political history of the United States and I promise to form a class of women all as ill-informed as I am, and equally anxious to learn.” It was an appeal that demanded compliance, and the interest aroused by the lectures suggested a fuller treatment of the subject in a more permanent form.

The thanks of the author are due to Professor E. G. Bourne, of Yale University, for some suggestions made after reading the manuscript. The book is sent forth in the hope that it will meet the demand for a concise account of our political history, and that it may prove of value to the man who votes, and to the woman who often influences the voter.

PLAINFIELD, NEW JERSEY, September, 1901.

Contents

CHAPTER) I

THE OLp DoMINION

The town-meeting — isolation of the colonies — contrast presented by Virginia and Massachusetts — first representative assembly convened in America — ballot granted to every freeman — social conditions — tyrannical measures of Governor Berkeley — Charles II. bestows the colony upon two of his favorites — Bacon’s Rebellion — Berkeley’s recall—the English Navigation TEA Sig ts). cee ea See cee ae er GORE on WeReel lparors Gaon lie fad

CHAPTER I Tue New ENGLAND THEOCRACY

The New England Theocracy—the school and the town-meeting — restricted suffrage —influence of Puritanism — “ The United Colonies of New England” — Thomas Hooker founds Hartford — Connecticut adopts the first American constitution — New Haven — Roger Williams and the charter of Rhode Island —the right of taxation secured to the people — John Winthrop — Boston, not London, the seat of government — Charles II. attempts to subdue the independent colony —charter of Massachusetts annulled — tyrannical measures of Governor Andros — new charterrocanted. by William aud Marys ii ee. Se ee

GHA PIPER STIL

BEGINNING OF THE STRUGGLE FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY

England’s colonies involved in her continental wars — the advance of constitutional liberty in England and America — Massachusett’s refusal to pay the royal governor a fixed salary — the Albany Plan— Writs of Assistance — Declaratory Resolves vii viil CONTENTS

—indignation in America— Samuel Adams—action of the Boston town-meeting — passage of the Stamp Act— speech of Isaac Barré— Patrick Henry in the House of Burgesses —an American Congress meets at New York—resistance to the Stamp Act—the American question debated in Parliament — speeches of William Pitt, George Grenville and Lord Mansfield: repeal of the Stamp Act. 21.2. |.) icons) ee Ge eens

CHAPTER IV

The American position as stated by Lecky — Townshend Revenue Act — Macaulay’s account of the “King’s friends ” — non-importation societies — Farmer’s Letters—the circular letter — colonial assemblies dissolved — seizure of the sloop Liberty — the great town-meeting — arrival of English troops at Boston — town refuses them quarters — proscription of importers — letters of Vindex— Boston Massacre—‘“‘ Sam Adams’ Regiments ” — repeal of Townshend taxes except that on tea— breaking the non-importation act — destruction of the Gaspee — Committee of Correspondence — destruction of the tea in Boston Harbor — five retaliatory measures adopted by Parliament — speeches of Edmund Burke and Lord Chatham — Gage made governor of Massachusetts? <..) 2°.) oti elhh: te) dae oh eon eee eee een EenEnnemes

CHAPTER V

The Continental question — Boston Port Bill— donations and letters to the Donation Committee — Regulating Act — Mandamus Counsellors — Provincial Congress of Massachusetts — Committee of Safety — Minute-men — address by Dr. Joseph Warren —conditions in New York and Pennsylvania — Samuel Adams carries through the election of delegates to the Continental Congress — Measures of this Congress — Suffolk Resolves — “ The Association of the United Colonies ”” — Chatham’s praise of the papers presented by the Continental Congress—the Bill of Rights — speeches by Lord Chatham and Edmund Burke— orders to arrest Adams and Hancock and send them to England for trial — Benjamin Franklin — all hope of peace atanend . 68

CONTENTS ix CHAPTER VI

Battle of Lexington—the Great Virginian — Second Continental Congress—an address to the king—war measures in both countries —the American flag — Thomas Paine’s pamphlet “Common Sense” —address of the Boston town-meeting — motion in Congress for independence — committee appointed to draft a declaration — Dickinson’s speech— motion carried and Declaration of Independence adopted — sentiments of the people — Plan of Confederation —the political situation — Lafayette’s opinion of the American troops—French Alliance — English Commissioners to America — efforts to end the war — death of Lord Chatham—the King and Lord North receive the news from Yorktown — renewed efforts for peace— Treaty of Peace.

CHAPTER VII

The “Critical Period” — Refugees — Society of the Cincinnati— North-West Territory — Ordinance of 1787— State of Franklin — Weakness of the Confederation — Newburgh Letter — Washington’s circular letter — Washington retires to Mount Vernon — efforts to negotiate Treaties of Commerce — John Adams at the English Court — religious liberty assured — Yankee invention — the Treasury Department — Robert Morris — variable and debased coinage—national currency —condition of the country — States adopt tariff duties— George Clinton — Fiat money — Shays’s Rebellion — Constitutional Conyention called.

CHAPTER VIII

THE CONSTITUTION AND THE First ELECTION

Framing of the Constitution—its adoption by the States — Amendments —the “ Federalist” —launching the Ship of State —acts of Congress —the Republican Court — Washington’s visit to Boston — John Jay — Alexander Hamilton — Hamilton’s Reports — funding and assumption— States admitted — excise — Whiskey Insurrection — Bank of the United States— mint esx CONTENTS tablished — Tammany Society receives a delegation of Creek Indians — Indian war in the North-West —rise of the Republican Party — Philip Fréneau — Hamilton’s measures attacked — MueitIVE Ola Ve) Lid Ws coated biel eRe kG SuceletRe Cos thcek Ho Son) (ees

CHAPTER, 1X

Washington’s second term— foreign relations — wild enthusiasm for the French Republic — American neutrality — the Genét affair — Jay Treaty — Congress affronts Washington — attempts to defeat the execution of the treaty — Fisher Ames’ great speech — Jay elected governor of New York — newspapers abuse Washington — Washington’s Farewell Address . ..... . 162

CHART RIIX

John Adams President— Monroe recalled from France — America and France on the verge of war —X. Y. Z. dispatches — Alien and Sedition Acts — Nullification — Fries’ Rebellion — Washington appointed Commander-in-chief of the army — war prevented — origin of Spoliation claims— death of Washington —election of President passes to the House of Representatives — Burr’s intrigues— Adams and the Federalists — John Marshall —anakers “Of the mation: /:) £24; 1.3; 4 wyhedeee Ce eae eee

CHAPTER XT

Thomas Jefferson President — retrenchment — removals from office—the President’s cabinet— Ohio admitted — West-Point established —twelfth amendment adopted — purchase of Louisiana —war with the Barbary States —Burr-Hamilton duel — Jefferson’s reélection— effect of the European war upon the United States — seizure and impressment—the “Mosquito Fleet ” — Chesapeake fired upon by the Leopard — Embargo — Enforcing Act — repeal — Burr tried for treason—act to prevent the importation of slaves — John Randolph and the “Quids” . . 187

CONTENTS xi CHAPTER "XII

PRESIDENCY OF JAMES MapIson

James Madison President — Albert Gallatin — America further embroiled with England— Macon’s Bill No. 2— Napoleon’s clever interpretation of the bill— United States Bank refused a renewal of its charter —the “previous question” —the “ War- Hawks” — Henry Clay — preparations for war — Madison’s second term — Ninety days embargo — War of 1812— Treaty of Ghent — Hartford Convention — Congress charters another Bank of the United States— Louisiana admitted . .... . 2006

CHAPTER. XIE PRESIDENCY OF JAMES MONROE

James Monroe President — Era of Good Feeling — Eli Whitney — the Cotton-gin — admission of Maine and Missouri —contest in Congress — Missouri Compromise — Monroe doctrine — John Quincy Adams Secretary of State — Seminole War — Florida purchased from Spain— Adams and the British Minister — Clay’s “ American System ” —the National Road — John C. Calhoun — bitterness of the presidential campaign —election of a President passes to the House of Representatives . . . . 220

CHAPTER XIV

John Quincy Adams President — his diary —the Jackson faction — Clay Secretary of State — “bargain and corruption” charge —death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams — Webster’s address at the memorial services — Webster and his message to his countrymen — Adams averse to removals from office — New York’s political machine — Clay-Randolph duel — National Repeers aNd) 1cmnocrats, he She: ed bes ete Pe the tie bel 238

CHAPTER XV

Andrew Jackson President — changes in the civil service — the “ Kitchen Cabinet ” —a cabinet officer’s wife causes serious comxli CONTENTS plications — the “ Tariff of Abominations ” — state rights refuted — South Carolina and Nullification — Webster’s reply to Hayne —tariff of 1832— South Carolina passes nullification ordinance — President acts promptly — Clay’s Compromise Bill — Jackson and the United States Bank — Jackson’s veto of the bank charter — Anti-Masonic Party — Jackson reélected — removal of the bank deposits —ruin of the bank — abolition crusade — William Lloyd Garrison — Wendell Phillips — petitions for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia—John Quincy Adams’ great fight for the right of petition—death of John Quincy Adams — Texas becomes independent —rise of the “ Whigs” — the “Loco Focos” —the question of expunging ... . 251

CHAPTER XVI

PRESIDENCIES OF MARTIN VAN BurEN, WILLIAM HENRY Harrison AND JoHN TYLER

From Jackson to Lincoln— Martin Van Buren—panic of 1837 — Independent or Sub-Treasury—the Whig campaign — Harrison’s inauguration —his death— Tyler becomes President — Sub-Treasury Law repealed —efforts to establish a national bank — Treaty of Washington —new tariff bills —advance of abolition movement —excitement over the return of fugitive slaves — case of George Latimer — effort to annex Texas — popularity of Clay—the Raleigh Letter — Native American Party — Freesoil Party —the Alabama Letters — grief at Clay’s defeat -— Lexas admitted ‘as ia ‘state + ,)420s0 io &, ete eee eee

CHAPTER UX Vil

PRESIDENCY OF JAMES K. PoL_x

James K. Polk inaugurated —tariff bill of 1846— Sub-Treasury reéstablished — Naval Academy founded — Department of Interior created —the north-west boundary —“ 54-40 or fight” —efforts to purchase California —the Mexican War — Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo —contest in Congress — Wilmot Proviso government for Oregon ‘lerritory 7. 92 1) ste eee

CONTENTS Xill

CHAPTER XVIII

PRESIDENCY OF ZACHARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE

Zachary Taylor inaugurated— question of slavery in California — gold discovered in that state — state constitution adopted — excitement in Congress over the admission of California — Compromise of 1850— speeches of Clay, Calhoun, Webster and William H. Seward —the North indignant with Webster — Clayton-Bulwer Treaty —death of the President — Fillmore succeeds him— Compromise Bill passed —the fugitive slave law —arguments advanced by the friends and the opponents of slavery —complexity of the question— “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” — Meat Ole Daniel-. Webster 3b" er cen attest beta Gere shaee tad en GOs

CHAPTER XIX

Franklin Pierce inaugurated — Stephen A. Douglas — Kansas- Nebraska Bill — “Squatter Sovereignty” —repeal of the Missouri Compromise — speeches of William H. Seward, Edward Everett, Salmon P. Chase and Charles Sumner — excitement throughout the country — Douglas carries through his bill — excitement in Boston over Anthony Burns— personal liberty bills —expansionists desire Cuba—rise of the Republican Party — the Underground Railroad — Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society —the Kansas Conflict —“ The Crime Against Kansas ” — Sumner assaulted by Brooks — “ Know-Nothings”’ —“ A Geo- Gem iicameaninaign: 2 ota. 0es a Pie eM aha te alte ite ed €) BIO

CHAPTER XX

Review of the political situation— Dred Scott decision — Buchanan’s Cabinet — Abraham Lincoln’s reply to Douglas — panic of 1857—efforts to obtain possession of Cuba — South desired an increase of negroes— struggle over the Lecompton Constitution in and out of Congress — Lecompton Jr. — efforts of Kansas to gain admission to the Union— Abraham Lincoln

X1V CONTENTS

— Lincoln-Douglas Debates — the “ irrepressible conflict ” — John Brown — attack on Harper’s Ferry — Brown’s trial and execution—treasonable utterances in Congress— Lincoln’s Cooper Union Speech— National Conventions nominate presidential candidates — Wide-Awake Clubs— Abraham Lincoln elected — South Carolina secedes — Confederate States of America — Two speeches by Alexander H. Stephens — weakness of the President — Crittenden Compromise — Thirteenth Amendment — efforts to relieve Fort Sumter —reorganization of the Cabinet — public opinion North and South— Lincoln’s plea for peace in his in- AUSUTAN ASCGUCSS Pee Leesa et Uh wetlel Nites tise: PONE R Ute olive Leal oe eene as

CHAPTER XXI

Lincoln’s policy —the Cabinet — relief of Sumter — Southern Commissioners in Washington — Charleston prepares for resistance — bombardment of Sumter—surrender of the fort—the North aroused — President calls for troops—extra session of Congress — Lincoln denies the right of a State to secede —the right of Revolution—conditions North and South — immense armies in the field—financial measures—loan bill — Legal Tender Act—enormous expenditures — fractional currency — fluctuation of gold — depreciation of the greenback — Legal Tender Act unconstitutional — national banking act — efforts to retain the Border States in the Union — suspension of the writ © of Habeas Corpus —“ war powers” of the President — dissatisfaction of extremists — Confiscation Act— southern sequestration act—“‘ Contrabands” — Fremont in Missouri — Congress prohibits slavery in the territories and District of Columbia — efforts to induce loyal slave States to emancipate — General Hunter’s order — Emancipation Proclamation —thirteenth amendment — colored troops <6 00) viel hee eae eee ee ean nS 7

CHAPTEROXX Es

The struggle between North and South as viewed by Europe —England’s friendliness toward the South— Charles Francis

CONTENTS XV

Adams — speech of John Bright —cotton famine —the “ bubble of Democracy” — affair of the “Trent” — building of Confederate Privateers in English ship-yards —the “ Alabama” — the Geneva Award — election of 1862— “ copperheads ” — conscription act — draft riot in New York —turning of the tide —cabinet changes — reconstruction — Proclamation of Amnesty— Amnesty Bill vetoed by the President — presidential nominations — peace missions — Lincoln’s second inaugural address —last scenes of the war — letter of James Russell Lowell — assassination of the President — greatness of Abraham Lincoln —a message to the Amer- RCALMDCODIC TET es dees, 6a SM ls tle hve) ol 13% poh ed ea SOO

CHAPTER I

THE government of the United States is the most perfect form of a Federal Republic that the world has ever known. It was not a special creation. It is an outgrowth of those great principles of self-government and representative government which the Anglo-Saxon received as a priceless legacy from the tungemot and shire-motes of his Teutonic ancestry, and which have made the English-speaking race the standard-bearer of constitutional liberty throughout the world.

The key-note of the political system of the United States is the town-meeting, an institution seen in perfection only in New England, although some form of the town-meeting principle is the basis of every state government and underlies the whole political life of the nation. Thomas Jefferson said: “Those wards called townships in New England have proved themselves the wisest invention ever devised by the wit of man for the perfect exercise of self-government and for its preservation.” That this impress was given to her political life was owing, to a great extent, to the superior character and intelligence of the early settlers of New England. They divided the land into towns, or districts, within which limit they adapted the principles of the old English town government to the needs of a new country and changed conditions. The people of

I each town directly govern themselves. At least once each year is held a town-meeting, at which every man in the town, twenty-one years of age and upward, is expected to be present, to vote, and, if he so desire, to take part in the discussion. At this meeting all local affairs are passed in review, appropriations of money are made, taxes determined and officers appointed to conduct the business of the town for the coming year. As population increases there are, necessarily, many changes in this plan. In cities the primary is but a town-meeting in miniature. Delegates are there elected to attend City, County or State Conventions, at which larger meetings the candidates for City, County or State offices are nominated to be voted for by the people at large. Thus the democratic principle is retained and the people are kept in direct contact with government. We can readily understand Mr. Fiske when he declares: “That without the town-meeting, or its equivalent in some form or other, the Federal Union would be converted into a centralizing imperial government.” As it is there are forty-five independent States, each with a perfectly organized democratic government, working in perfect harmony within the bonds of the Federal Republic, and so united forming a great and powerful nation. But this feeling of nationality was of slow growth. Previous to the Revolution it did not exist, for long after it was a weak sentiment, but finally the hammer-strokes of the Civil War welded the States into a nation. That this should have been the case was natural, for the thirteen colonies were politically independent of each other, and further separated by natural barriers and differences of religious opinion, so important a factor in those days. The New England’ Puritans had nothing in common with the Quakers of Pennsylvania, the Catholics of

THE COLONISTS 3

Maryland, or the Episcopalians of Virginia; while the Dutch of New York, with smaller settlements of Swedes, Germans and French Huguenots, added other elements of contrast. Furthermore, as all the colonies had free access to the sea, they were commercially independent of each other, and as there were no bridges over the great rivers and few roads through the vast forests, communication was difficult and often dangerous. But the majority of the colonists were of the English race who had received, as has been said, the principles of constitutional liberty as a birthright, and when these rights were attacked by the British government, colonies so dissimilar as Massachusetts and Virginia joined in resistance. It is in these two, the largest, wealthiest, and most influential divisions of England’s possessions in the new world, that we must study in detail the preliminaries of the American Revolution.

In order to understand fully the principles for which the Americans contended in that long struggle, we must briefly review the earlier colonial period, consider the conditions under which the colonies were established, and note the influence of their peculiar environment. We shall find that in the perfect freedom of their new life, widely removed from king and parliament, the church and courts of law, liberty of thought and action grew apace. Men became imbued with an independence and self-reliance, which enabled them to successfully withstand the perils and hardships they encountered in the wilderness, but which did not conduce to a humble and obedient frame of mind towards those who, by the laws of the realm, were placed in authority over them.

Virginia and Massachusetts, alike in a population more purely English than was to be found in the other colonies, present a striking contrast in social conditions,

The Virginian upon his vast estate, so far as circumstances permitted, patterned his mode of life after that of the landed gentry of England, and he is a picturesque and charming figure. He ruled a little kingdom of his own, for of necessity many industries were conducted under his direction to supply the needs of his numerous dependents. He was a man of affairs and of many social graces, having, probably, been educated abroad, and thus seen something of the great world. These conditions produced men of fine executive ability, destined to be distinguished in the public service as were Washington, Jefferson, Henry, Madison and Marshall, but the common people were inferior, among them being many indentured servants and transported convicts. The early introduction of slave labor (1619) brought its own punishment, for servile labor debases free labor; as negro slavery increased, the poor white inevitably sank in the social scale. Owing to the large plantations the population was scattered, and as there were few villages, a common-school system of education became impossible. The prevailing ignorance, the conditions of labor, and the large number of undesirable emigrants, resulted in forming a class which later became known as “ white trash.” We shall find in Virginia the independent planters in the House of Burgesses defending their rights and privileges against English agression, but as we shall see, in New England it was the people, the men trained in the district-school and the town-meeting, who stood beside their leaders boldly resisting oppression.

The colonies of Virginia and Massachusetts were established by London Stock Companies under royal charters. It is not necessary to enter into details regarding these charters, except in those points which established a precedent for future political procedure, or which called

1621] HOUSE OF BURGESSES 5 forth resistance to established authority and thus foreshadowed the future struggle for complete independence.

The first representative assembly convened in America met at Jamestown, Virginia, July 30, 1619. This privilege of self-government was secured by the efforts of a few broad-minded men in the London Company, who sincerely desired to further the interests of the discontented colonists, then demanding a voice in the management of their own affairs. Twenty-two representatives were elected, and with the governor and his council, formed the House of Burgesses. In 1680 the representatives withdrew from the governor and council and thereafter the assembly consisted of two houses, as in the legislatures of the present day. At an early date in each colony arose a representative assembly the ‘“ Commons of America.” At first the commons met with the governor and his council, but after a time, these assemblies were in almost all cases divided, the governor and his council forming one house, the representatives elected by the people the other.

The House of Burgesses had ample authority to legislate for the colony, but their acts became valid only when approved by the Company; as an offset to this check, no measure affecting the colony adopted by the Company could become law, until sanctioned by the House of Burgesses. In 1621 these provisions of the London Company were confirmed by a new charter which, in addition, secured to Virginia the procedure of the English Judiciary. ‘The system of representative government and trial by jury,” says Bancroft, “thus became in the new hemisphere an acknowledged right. On this ordinance Virginia erected the superstructure of her liberties. Its influences were wide and enduring. . . It constituted the plantation, in its infancy, a nursery of freeman.”

When the charter of the London Company was annulled (June 16, 1624) the ruin of the Company did not involve Virginia, for self-government had gained a firm foothold and its representative assembly was prepared to protect the rights of the colonists. In all the colonies there was constant friction during the entire colonial period, between the royal governors and the representative assemblies, but these contentions educated the people upon political questions. Virginia bore her share of these troubles, but, on the whole, until the restoration, enjoyed a fair measure of liberty to which the disturbed state of English politics largely contributed.

In 1656 the House of Burgesses granted the ballot to every freeman, declaring it to be “unagreeable to reason, that any person shall pay equal taxes, and yet have no vote in elections.” This was the first attempt in America to establish universal suffrage.

The colony was very prosperous, the wealth of the planters increased, the great crops of tobacco being an unfailing source of revenue, although subject to extreme fluctuations. Following the execution of Charles I., in 1649, there was a large accession of cavaliers who formed an important addition to the aristocracy of the province. The Virginian, unlike the New England Puritan, entertained no lurking bitterness against the mother-country, a legacy from the religious persecutions of an earlier day; he had left the old home to better his condition, and even convicts and indentured servants sent to the © colony found their hard lot ameliorated. The planter was generally a royalist and a good churchman. By the closeness of trade relations he kept in touch with the England of his day. As the country abounded in rivers,

1670] POLITICAL CONDITIONS 4 ships, in most cases, took his tobacco from his own dock and also landed there the merchandise sent out to his order by his London agent. Virginia, with its Anglican church, its great estates held intact by laws of primogeniture and entail, its fox-hunting squires dispensing a wide hospitality, its horse-races and other out-door sports, was more representative of English social life than any American colony.

It was an environment favorable to the growth of an aristocracy, and the House of Burgesses elected after the accession of Charles II., was largely composed of the landed gentry. Under the lead of Sir William Berkeley, the royal governor, they remained in authority for fifteen years (1661-1676). This was accomplished by the clever device of adjourning from year to year, Berkeley, meanwhile, refusing to issue the necessary writs for the biennial elections. This body effected striking political changes. Stringent laws were passed to secure conformity to the established church; teachers were required to be of the Episcopal faith, and marriages must be solemnized by the ritual of the prayer-book. All persons were taxed for the support of the church, and in each parish twelve vestry-men acted as assessors. They were now given power to fill all vacancies in their number, and they thus became a close corporation, over which the parish lost all control. In 1670 the suffrage was restricted, it being enacted that “none but freeholders and housekeepers shall hereafter have a voice in the election of any burgesses”; a large body of colonists were thus deprived of their liberties by the act of their representatives. Political power had passed into the hands of a dominant class, the people were burdened by heavy taxes and suffering from abuses they were powerless to remedy; but in this new world, liberty was felt to be a natural right, and their discontent found voice in that uprising known as Bacon’s Rebellion. True, other causes served to inflame the people; a constant source of complaint was the severity of the English Navigation Laws: moreover the king, who had been so joyously proclaimed on his accession, had angered and estranged the once loyal colonists. Careless of their welfare, he appointed worthless courtiers to positions of trust in the colony and in 1673 bestowed the so-called “kingdom of Virginia”’ upon two of his favorites, Lord Culpepper and the Earl of Arlington, for the term of thirty-one years, placing the administration of the colony in the hands of the new proprietors.t. It needed but a spark to kindle rebellion, and this was supplied by an Indian outbreak (1676), which Berkeley failed to suppress. The man for the hour was not wanting, and Nathaniel Bacon stepped forth, not only to lead the people against their savage foes, but to attempt the redress of grievances and the recovery of their lost liberties.