American farming and stock raising, with useful facts for the household, devoted to farming in all its departments

Front matter

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Preface

The prosperity of a country depends chiefly upon the intelligent cultivation of its soil. No one can doubt that. The intelligent cultivation of the soil depends upon information. This is equally plain. Practical and theoretical knowledge is power in agriculture, as in everything else. It lies at the foundation of individual and national wealth. Those who know the most will, in the long run, do the best work at the best time and in the best way. They will work out the best results, both for themselves and for the community in which they hve.

The progress made within the last twenty years in the sciences which are intimately connected with the cultivation of the soil is something wonderful. It has opened new fields of thought, of investigation, and of experiment. During that time the science of chemistry has made rapid advances, and its methods of investigation have been greatly improved. It has brought its contributions to agriculture from a great variety of sources, each of which brings something peculiar to itself. It has explained the composition of soils and manures. It has added greatly to our stock of knowledge as to the methods of feeding animals to obtain special results, giving us accurate information of the composition of feeding substances, and the effect of different processes of feeding upon the development of the animal economy.

At the same time botany has solved the mysteries of plant-growth, and, with the aid of vegetable physiology, has thrown a flood of light upon the elements of plant-food, and the means by which the production of crops can be greatly promoted. All the sciences, indeed, have contributed to the development of agriculture, some of them directly, others by leading the minds of men to a higher standard of intellectual activity.

The agricultural literature of the country has grown up almost entirely within the last quarter of a century, and has taken a rank worthy of the importance of the industry to the development of which it is devoted. Thirty years ago there were few works on farming in this country that were at all creditable either in style or the information they contained. Most of the books on the subject were English, or reprints of English publications. They were not well adapted to meet the wants of American farmers. They often contained much that was interesting, but generally lacked that full and practical information based on actual experiment that was well calculated to meet the wants of daOy life upon the farm. They abounded in theories rather than facts.

The present work is designed to embody the most practical information upon agriculture, the results of scientific investigation in the laboratory, and of experiment in the field. It is comprehensive in plan, treating of a great variety of subjects so fully as to make it unnecessary to purchase many books on special topics — a farmer's hbrary, in fact, condensed within the covers of two volumes. It aims to present the most intelligent practice of the best cultivators in all sections of the country, and to meet the wants of every practical farmer who desires to rise above the drudgery of his calling. It does not deal to any extent in theories. The effort has been to present facts. They have been gleaned from many fields, from conversations with intelligent farmers, from the talks at farmers' clubs, from the agricultural press, and from actual experience on the farm.

jj PREFACE.

Other books of less comprehensive character have appeared from time to time, and they are all more or less valuable and instructive, but it is some years since they appeared, while changes have taken place in the condition of many parts of the country, owing to the rapid growth of the means of transportation, and the consequent modifications ui the systems of farmincr. The farmer, like the merchant, is under the necessity of keeping up with the times, in order not to be left behind in the close competition which he has to meet. Principles may not change, but practice must be flexible enough to adapt itself to the present condition of things and the wants of the market in which the infinite variety of the products of the farm are to be sold.

This work is committed to the press in the confident hope and belief that it will prove to be of permanent value and helpfulness to every farmer into whose hands it may fall.

CHARLES L. FLINT

The Publishers' Announcement.

In presenting "The American Faemeh" to the general public, it is proper to state that it has been the object and aim of the publishers to make it both comprehensive and exhaustive ; in brief, an authoritative standard work on general and scientific agriculture, in all its departments and details, and the best work in this class of literature ever published in this or any other country. To this end we have spared neither time nor expense, and flatter ourselves that the " well done " of the American Public awaits us.

The editor of this work, Hon. Chas. L. Flint, of Boston, Mass., needs no introduction to the Agricultural World, nor does he need the encomiums of the publishers ; for his twentyseven annual reports on the " Agriculture of Massachusetts," issued during twenty-eight consecutive years of service as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, his " Grasses and Forage Plants," "Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," "Manual of Agriculture," "Harris on Insects," and his numerous essays, lectures, and contributions to the press, all stamp him as a practical man, and able authority on all that pertains to advanced agriculture.

Now when we add, that the youth and early manhood of Mr. Flint were passed upon the home farm at Middleton, Mass., this work may be justly regarded as the choice fruitage of a life devoted to the interests of Agriculture — a union of practice and theory; a secure guaranty, as to the entire trustworthiness, of the facts for farmers contained in this work.

This, his latest production, — possibly his valedictory to the Agricultural World, — will be welcomed in many a farmer's home, not only for its fullness and completeness in every department of which it treats, but also for the plain and practical discussion of all subjects; the reader understanding clearly the abundant facts, principles, and suggestions found herein, touching the cultivation of the soil, which, when rightly understood and utilized by the intelligent, practical farmers of our country, becomes at once, not only the foundation of our highest national prosperity and wealth, but the very keystone of our body politic.

The piiblishers congratulate themselves that they have been so fortunate as to secure the services of so high an authority on practical and scientific agriculture for the editor of this work ; nor should they neglect to congratulate the American Public that they are to be the recipients of Mr. Flint's valuable work, and able to avail themselves of the many advantages that such a volume as this affords.

As might be anticipated, this work is very appropriately dedicated to the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, of Boston, the life-long friend of the farmer and the personal friend of Mr. Flint, being officially associated with the latter in the Agriculture of Massachusetts and the country for over thirty years. Col. Wilder, now in his eighty-sixth year, (of whom Mr. Fhnt gives a brief memoir in prefatory pages of Vol. II,) was bom at Rindge, New Hampshire, in 1798, and has taken an active interest in agricultural pursuits all his life, having been one of the foremost in organizing the "Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture," and also the "State Agricultural College;" besides being the President of the "Massachusetts Horticultural Society" from 1840 to 1848, and of the "United States Agricultural Society" from 1852 to 1858, and the President of the "American Pomological Society" since its formation in 1848. In this connection it is proper to remark, that it was through the personal soUcitaiv PUBLISHERS ANNOUNCEMENT.

tion of the publishers, that Col. Wilder permitted us to place his portrait in our work ; and we are confident that liis many friends in the United States and Canada will thank us for the favor. We present also, as a fitting frontispiece to this work, an excellent steel engraving of its editor, whose genial face, as represented, is a speaking picture of the man, of whom we may say truthfull)' : "All his works do praise him."

Without disparaging any of the few agricultural works now before the public, we may say generally of books of this sort, as Daniel Webster once said of the legal profession : "There's always room at the top"; at this point, only expressing the hope that happily a critical public will accord to our work that honorable place in agricultural literature, which we believe it merits.

The methods of tillage and fertilization of the soU, the cultivation of that portion of the vegetable kingdom here presented, whether of products in the East, "West, North, or South, will be found not only entirely reliable, but the latest word on the subject treated, and suggestive of still better conditions of improved agriculture in the future.

Broad and liberal, as well as humane views are here inculcated with reference to the breeding and management of all domestic animals ; the hundreds of engravings in steel and wood being an attractive as well as instructive feature of this exhibit.

The systematic arrangement of this work into Parts and Departments, with Sub-headings, greatly adds to its utility by making it convenient for ready reference, and invaluable, if not indispensable, to all farmers, and those interested in general agriculture, as well as to fanciers of fine stock of whatever variety or breed.

In conclusion, it is our agreeable duty to acknowledge our indebtedness to the late United States Commissioner of Agriculture, Hon. Wm. G. Le Due, and his successor. Hon. George B. Loring, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, Hon. Spencer F. Baird, Director of the United States Fish Commission, and Seth Green, Esq., from all of whom we have received valuable assistance; to the Commissioners of Agriculture generally in the several States who have favored us with copies of their reports and other important documents; to Prof. C. V. RUey, Entomological Department of Agriculture, "Washington, D. C, for valuable printed documents, to Professors Brewer, Johnson, and other leading agricultural writers. Our acknowledgments are also due to the agncultural press generallj^, to the Librarian of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, and to the officers of the Boston Public Library, who have greatly aided us m the prosecution of this work; to Hon J. H. Pope, Minister of Agriculture in the Canadas, who lias rendered great assistance by reports and other documents; and finally, to that agriculturist of world-wide reputation who established, and for nearly fifty years has conducted an " Experiment Station " on his estate at his own expense, and solely for the advancement of knowledge in agriculture, .the Hon. J. B. Lawes, LL.D., of Rothamsted, St. Albans, England; we would also tender our sincere thanks for the many valuable documents he has furnished us, giving the rich results of his experiments and investigations

Very respectfully,

THE PUBLISHERS.

nOPERTT UBRAHt

PART I. GENERAL AGRICULTURE. Farming as an Occupation

Agriculture tne basis of civilization and wealth of a country — Its aim and scope compared with other avocations. — Dignity of farm labor. — Its relation to physical, mental, and moral culture — Its influence upon National industry and prosperit}- — Original calling of mankind — Independence of the farmer — Advantages of a farmer being educated to his business — Old and new methods of fanning compared — Elements of success in farming — Farming can be made profitable. 3

Soils.

The origin of soils — The constitution and texture of soils — Their classification — Clay soils and their management — Gravelly soils — Loamy soils — Marly and calcareous soils — Silt and alluvial toils — JIuck — Peat soils and their cultivation — Sub-soils — Friableness of the soil — Light colored clays — Marls and sands — Color of soils — The Dew Point — Analysis of various soils — Analysis determines the constituents of a soil, but not its mechanical condition — Analysis of plants more satisfactory than that of soils — Both are aids when combined with experience and observation. lO

Fertilizers.

Elements of plant food — Elements necessary to supply soils — Organic and inorganic elements — Plant, life and plant food — General propositions concerning plant food — Exhaustion of soil Iiy farm crops ■ — Materials removed from the soil by various products — Deficiency of potash in common fertilizers and in soils — Common manures and commercial fertilizers — ^Barn3'ard manure and its value — Poultry manure— Night soil and poudrette — Sewage as a fertilizer — The sewage of Paris — Sail in a Paris sewer — Composts — Their value — How to construct a compost pile — The value as fertilizers of flesh — Blood — Hair — Horns— Hoofs — Fish — Fish Guano, &c — Cotton seed as a fertilizer — Castor and Linseed Pomace — Animal dust — Peruvian Guano — Rectified Peruvian Guano — American Guano — Lime — Ground Limestone and shells — Gas Lime — Wood ashes — Coal ashes — Soot — Charcoal dust — Peat and peat ashes — Sea-weed and sea-weed ashes — Bones — Marl — Gypsum — Salt as a fertilizer — Potash — Sources of supply of potash — The Stassfurt potash mines — Composition of German Potash salts — How to use potash salts as a fertilizer — Leaves of trees as fertilizers — Manuring with green crops — Clover for vegetable manure — Various crops for green manure — Sod — Special fertilizers for various crops — Stockbridge Formula for Wheat, Indian Corn, Fodder Corn, — Rye, — Oats, — Buckwheat,— Potatoes, — Field Beans, — Swede Turnips or Rutabagas, — Onions, — Hay. — Application of manures — Quantity to be used — The fallow system. 39

Tillage.

The advantages of tillage — It aids in supplying plant food — Objections to tillage answered — Judgment and skill necessary to successful tillage — Different soils require different methods — Tillage should always be adapted to the wants of the crops cultivated and the character of the soil — The best implements essential — The plow the principal reliance of the farmer in the labor of tillage — The plow should be suited to the kind of work required, — a light plow should not be used for heavy work, nor a sub-soil plow for light work — Sulky and Gang plows. Chilled plows, &c — Lands that should be plowed in the fall — Lands that should be plowed in the spring — Best method of fall plowing — Ridging — Manner of plowing a field — Deep and shallow plowing — Depth of plowing must depend upon difEerent conditions, such as the character of the soil and the crops to be cultivated — Subsoil plowing — The principal material for plant food is to be found in the surface or agricultural soil- When desirable to break up the subsoil — A knowledge of the character of the subsoil essential to successful tillage — Benefits occasionally derived from mixing the subsoil with the surface or agricultural soil — An instance given — Clay soils, heavy loams, etc., best pulverized by plowing when drj' or nearly so — Use of the harrow — Its use for any purpose most effectual when the soil is dry — Best implements required — Various harrows and clod crushers described and illustrated — The use of the Roller — Beuetits derived from pressing the soil upon the seed — Exterminating noxious weeds.

What Crops to Raise.

A judicious choice of crops essential to success — Crops that can find a ready market to be cultivated — Principle always to be regarded — Choice modified by the character of the soil, etc. — Relative cost and value of different crops. 104

Rotation of Crops.

Benefits of a judicious rotation of crops — Theories relative to the cause of failure or depreciation of the same kind of crops produced continuously from the same soil — Nature follows a course of rotation —This strikingly illustrated in the succession of different forest trees — " Clover sick " lands — A scheme of rotation to be so formed as to cultivate the same or similar crops on the same ground at intervals as remote as practicable — The English practice called the "Four-field or Norfolk System"— Rotation in Agriculture in Italy — Various methods of rotation adopted in this country — Rotation of crops in the Southern States — Rotation for the worn lands of the South — Grass — Pasturage— Whatever the rotation, good crops cannot be produced in any section without proper management, and a suflicient supply of manure to the soil. 107

Irrigation.

Water one of the sources of supply of plant food — The benefits derived from irrigation — Various methods of irrigating lands — Use of the windmill in irrigation — When irrigation is injurious — An excess detrimental — When irrigation should begin in the spring — Should always be adapted to the character of the soil and the kind of crops cultivated. 117

Drainage.

Various methods— Benefits to be derived from drainage — Difference in temperature of drained and undrained soils — Drainage tends to render soils warm and more friable — Enables the farmer to plant earlier in the spring — Tends to prevent injur}' to crops from excess of moisture — To prevent drought — To prevent surface washing and winter killing of grain — Tends to an earlier harvest — Renders a location more healthful — Drainage system at the South — Reclaiming the Everglades of Florida by draining Lake Okeechobee — The drainage system two hundred years ago — Partial drainage— Average amount of rain-fall — What lands require drainage — Location of drains — Necessity of drains being properly constructed and the work well done — Tile draining the best method — Careful planning of location of drains necessary to secure the best results — How to dig the trenches — Deptli of drains — How to lay the main drains — How to lay the tributaries — Protection against sand and other obstructions entering at the joints — Filling the trenches — Stone drains — Plank drains — Turf — Brush, etc. — The mole plow — Open ditches — Furrow draining or ridge cultivation — Tile draining the most effectual, permanent, generally satisfactory, and eventually the most economical.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.

Grasses and Forage Plants.

Great importance of the grass product — Varieties — Description of more than one hundred varieties of grasses — Their cultivation — Forage plants — Varieties — Cultivation — Indian Millet — Common Millet — German or Golden Millet-— Pearl Millet — Indian Corn as a forage plant — Japan Clover — Mexican Clover — Red Clover — Time of cutting and method of curing clover — Conditions favorable to fermentation in clover hay — Cultivating clover seed — Harvesting clover seed — Clover as a fertilizer — "Clover sickness" of lands— Alsike clover and its cultivation — White clover — Crimson clover — Alfalfa or Lucerne — Value as a forage plant — Cultivation — Sainfoin — Cultivation — Vetch — Spurrj' — The Cow or field pea — Lupine — Prickly Comfrej' — List of grasses and forage plants, witli their common and botanical names, their time of blossoming, whether wild or cultivated, and the kind of soil adapted to their growth — Glossary of terms used in describing grasses — Grouping of grasses — Nutritive value of grasses — Analyses of different varieties — Tables for the mixture of seeds for tiie following lands — Mowing lands. Permanent pastures. Hay and pasture combined — Rotation and improvement of soil — Meadow lands — Sununer pastures — Winter pastures — Permanent pastures according to English methods — Permanent pastures as practiced in Scotland — Lawn grasses — Fine lawns frequently mown — Ha)' and pasture in orchards and shady places — Mowing on light lands — Keclaimed peaty lands — Marshy grounds liable to be occasionally overflown with fresh water — Rocky lands — Time to sow grass seed — Selection of seed — Time of cutting and manner of curing hay — Improved implements in hay making — Mowing machines — Hay tedders— Horse rakes — Horse hay forks— Hay carriers— Hay cups— Storage of hay— Stacking of hay — Hay stacking apparatus- Baling hay — Aftermath or Rowen — Cultivating grass seed — Fall grazing of mowing lands — The practice injurious to the crop of the following year if done after cutting the aftermath — Manuring mowing lands — Rolling mowing lands and pastures beneficial — Renovating grass lands. 138

Cereals.

Importance of the cereal product — The great advance in the production of cereals in the I'nited States during the last ten years— Comparative advancement in the production of the different cereals— Wheat— Description of different varieties— Preparation of soil for wheat— Fertilizers— Selection of seed — Time of sowing spring wheat— Time of sowing winter wheat— Quantity sown to the acre — Sowing broadcast and drill sowing compared — Depth of covering — After-cultivation— Improved implements in the cultivation of wheat— Harvesting — Threshing— Diseases and insects of wheat — Rust— Chinch Bug — Hessian Flj-— Rye — Varieties— Soil— Fertilizers — Sowing— Harvesting— Threshing— Diseases of Rye— Oats— Varieties — Soil— Fertilizers— Cultivation— Harvesting— Threshing — Diseases — Barley — Varieties— Soil— Fertilizers — Seeding— Harvesting— Threshing — Buckwheat— Soil — Sowing — Harvesting — Corn — Its importance among cereals — Analysis — Varieties described — Selection of seed — Preparation of seed for planting — Soil for corn and its preparation — Time for planting in the different sections of the country — Methods of planting — The mixing of different varieties to be obviated— Hill and drill planting compared — After-cultivation— Harvesting— Fodder — Stalks in the field — Husking — Shelling — Shelling unhusked corn — Grinding corn — Grinding unhusked corn — Cob meal — Diseases and enemies of corn — Rice — Its value as an article of food — Varieties— Analysis of rice — Lands adapted to its cultivation — Cultivation — Harvesting — Threshing and milling. 263

Roots and Esculent Tubers.

The common potato — Native of this continent — Improvement through cultivation — Introduction into Great Britain — Subsequent cultivation — Description of varieties — Soil and its preparation — Fertilizers— Selecting and cutting potatoes for planting — Cutting to a single eye — Number of eyes to the hill — Planting — Hill and drill planting compared — Potato planters — Benefits of early planting — The manner of growth of different varieties illustrated— Hilling and level culture compared — Forcing potatoes — Cultivation — How to raise potatoes from cuttings — Two crops of potatoes a year — H)'bridizing potatoes — How to raise seedlings — Harvesting — Potato digger.? — Storing — Diseases — Potato rot— Potato Bug or Colorado Beetle — Use of Paris Green, etc.— Scabby Potatoes— How to tell a good potolo — Sweet potatoes— Native of Southern Asia — Not exclusively a Southern product, and may be raised with fair success in many of the Northern States — Its nutritive value — Varieties — soil — Fert'iizers — Obtaining plants — Transplanting — Cultivation— Harvesting — Storing — The Yam — Varieties— Chinese yam — Cultivation — Turnips — Varieties — Table of nutritive value of roots — Soil— Fertilizers — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Cultivation of spring turnips — Ruta-baga or Swedi.sh turnips — Harvesting — Storing — Raising turnip seed — Beets — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Mangel Wurtzels — Cultivation — Harvesting — Storage— Root Cutters — Carrots — Varieties — Cultivation — Carrot weeders — Harvesting and storage — Parsnips — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Cultivation — Artichokes — Analysis of artichokes and potatoes compared— Their value as food for swine and other live stock — Varieties — Planting and cultivation — Yield — Chufas — Cultivation — Ridge culture for root crops — Root pits — Ventilators for root pits essential— How constructed— Onions— Varieties— Soil and its preparation— Cultivation from seed- Cultivation of Sets — (Cultivation of top onions— Potato onions — Shallots— Rareripes— Onion weeders — Cultivation of onion seed — Harvesting and storing onions. 330

Miscellaneous Products.

Cotton— The great importance of the product— History— First exportations— Cotton growing section — Beauty of the cotton blossom — Varieties — Upland cotton — Sea Island cotton — Cotton product of British India and Egypt— Unproductive cotton fields of the South— How the evil may be remedied

Invention of the cotton-gin — Varieties — Soil — Preparation of soil — Fertilizers — Planting —

Cidtivation — Securing the crop— Ginning- Baling— Use of seed— Seed hulling— Facts elicited respecting the cotton product at the Atlanta Exposition in 1881 — Enemies of the cotton

Viii CONTENTS.

plant — Sugar — Sources of supply — Importation — Introduction of Sugar cane — Section suited to the production of the sugar-cane — Varieties of sugar-cane — Preparation of tlie soil — Fertilizers — Cuttings — Setting the cuttings — Cultivation— Ilarvesling — ^Jlanufacturing sugar — ^Machinery required — Sorgho and Imphees — Soil — Planting — Cullivation — Harvesting — iianufacturing syrup — Sugar Beet — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Harvesting — Storing — Manufacturing sugar — Sugar maple — Obtaining sap — Sugar making — Tobacco — Varieties — Soil — Preparing seed beds — Sowing — "Weeding — Preparationof soil— Fertilizers — Transplanting — Cultivation — Enemies — Worming — Topping — Suckering — Cutting — Curing — Stripping — Packing — Coffee — Climate suited to the cultivation of coffee — Soil — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparing for market — Tea — Southern localities adapted to its culture — Varieties — Jlelhods of cultivation — Gathering — Curing — Peanuts Where successfully culti^■ated — Soil— Fertilizers — Planting — Cultivation — Harvesting — Indigo — Cultivation— Flax — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparation for market — Cultivating seed — Hemi>^SoiI — Sowing — Method of cultivation — Cutting — Drying — Cultivating seed — Jute — Cultivation — Harvesting — Preparing for market — Peas — Varieties — Soil — Cultivation — Beans — Varieties — Preparation of soil — Planting — Cultivation — Castor Beans — Cultivation— Broom corn — Preparation of soil — Planting — Cultivating — Harvesting — Curing — Hops — Soil — Cultivation — Stacking — Harvesting — Drying — Mustard — Varieties — Cultivation — Harvesting.

Ensilage.

History of the discovery of the ensilage system — Various experiments — Objects to be secured — Manner of building silos — Earth silos — The most profitable crops to ensilage — Cultivation — Cutting — How to fill a silo — Removing fodder from silos— How to feed ensilage — Economic value of ensilage compared with other fodder — Improved farming methods — Ensilage adapted to the Southern States — Analysis and composition of corn (or maize) when cut in its green state — Advantages of the ensilage system — Opinions and experiments from various authentic sources respecting the system. 489

Good Seed.

Newfssity of care in the production of good seed — Choice of plants — Improvement by cultivation — Ho'»^ effected — Seed plants to be grown apart from others — Special cultivation should be given — Protections afforded against adverse influences — Importance of removing inferior plants — Gathering anO storing seed — Seed from the strongest plants selected — Injury from moisture — Qualities of good seed — Vitality — Vigor — Productiveness — The use of old or poor seed attended with loss to the farmer. 513

Timber Culture.

The great importance and value of limber — The destruction of American forests to be deplored — Influence of forests upon rain fall — Climate — Soil and vegetable growth — Healthful influence of forests — Forests should be restored — Tree planting a necessity — Varieties — Large trees of California — Time and manner of transplanting forest trees. 516

Water Supply of the Farm.

Importance of a sufficient supply of pure water for the farm — Sources of supply — Springs — Ponds — Biooks — Rivers — Wells — Contamination of water from various sources — Sickness and death often caused by use of impure water — Surface drainage — Injurious effects of metallic pipes — Artesian Wells — Hjdraulic rams — The windmill as a motive power for pumping water — Use of syphon in water supply. 537

Motive Power for Farms.

Various powers employed for farm use — Dog and sheep power — Horse power — Wind power — Stean» power — Farm engines — Their importance and utilit)' on large farms — Steam power employed ou the farm of Mr. Dalrymple in Dakota — Steam power for tillage. 543

Farm Teams.

Good teams essential for farm use — Best animals for the purpose — Horses — Mules — Oxen — Relative cost and value — Number of animals should be in proportion to the work to be performed — Farm animals should have good care and kind treatment. 547

Roads and Road Making.

Importance of having good roads — Improper manner in which the earlj' settlers laid out roads — Eleva tions in surveying for roads to be avoided — How roads should be laid out — Should be substantiallyconstructed A solid and unyielding foundation necessary — Form of the road-bed — Removing obstructions and repairing roads— System of drainage for roads— The construction of catch waters or ■bars— Value of the stone crusher and roller in road making. 549