A history of Greece, from the earliest times to the destruction of Corinth, B.C. 146, based upon ...

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Preface

Within the laat fifty yeara more haa been done by botli English and foreign BcholarB to elucidate the History of Ccreece than at any former period Bince the reviyal of learning ; and the results of all these labours are two English works on the History of Greece such as no other nation can boast of For although the Germans possess in their literature a countless number of treatises and dissertations upon almost every subject connected with Greek antiquity, yet they aeem to lack either the will or the power to produce some one great work combining the treaanres dug out by the numberless workers in the quarries of Greek lore, and exhibiting to the modem student a complete picture of the Greek nation. This task, requiring, perhaps, more practical knowledge of free political institutions than continental scholars generally can be expected to possess, has been left to English scholars.

IT PREFACE.

and has been executed by Bishop Thirlwall and Mr. Grote in a manner which throws all previous attempts of a similar nature completely into the shade.

Under such circumstances, it appeared desirable tUat the results arrived at in the voluminous works of these authors should be made available for educational purposes. The History of Greece is taught, more or less, in all schools and colleges which profess to give a liberal education ; and as by far the greater number of young students want either the means to procure or the time to study the great works on this subject, it has been thought advisable to prepare a manual containing, within a reasonable compass, an accurate and complete outline of the subject, and not unworthy to serve as an introduction to the masterpieces of classical historical literature produced in our own age and country.

With this view the present work has been undertaken. It is mainly based upon Bishop Thirlwall's Greek History, especially in the first part, down to the account of the Peloponnesian war. As this portion of the bishop's work enters less into the minute details of the subject, it was possible, and was at the same time thought expedient, to preserve, to a considerable extent, the form and diction of Dr. Thirlwall's work, of which the first half of this manual is, therefore, in every sense, an abridgment. But of the afiairs of Greece from the Peloponnesian war the bishop's work contains such a detailed account that, although the period over which it extends is not quite three centuries, it occupies six volumes out of the eight of which the whole history consists. Here, therefore, the process of abridging could not be conveniently adopted, and it became necessary to proceed more freely; especially as it was not requisite that the later portions of the History of Greece should

PBEFACE. T

be treated, in this manual, with that minuteness which it seemed desirable to preserve in the accounts of the earlier and more brilliant period of Greek History, which ends at the time when the kings of Macedonia began to interfere in, and to exercise influence upon, the affairs of Greece; for this reason, the narrative of events subsequent to the time of Philip is more brief than that which relates to the preceding period; and as, moreover, the history of Macedonia and of her conquests in the East does not, properly speaking, form part of the History of Greece, it is introduced in the present work only so far as is necessary to enable the student to understand the main subject.

In conclusion, the author would fain indulge a hope that this manual may meet with the same kind and indulgent reception which has been accorded to his little work on Boman History. His most ardent desire is, that it may contribute towards keeping alive love for, and admiration of, a people which, although it is the first we meet with at the dawn of European history, still stands pre-eminent in all matters connected with literature and the arts, and to whose spiritual influence all civilised nations owe a vast debt of gratitude.

L. SCHMITZ.

Edinburgh, Oct. 1850.

The supplementary chapters, containing, besides a sketch of the history of the literature and the arts among the

■ri PREFACE.

Greeks, a snccinct view of their civilisation and religious development, have bpen entirely re-written and expanded for this, the fifth, edition. The iUuatrations intorspcrsed thronghont the work are copies from the antique ; those representing scenes memorable In the history of Crreece are taken from Sir William Gell's original sketches, now in the British Museum, to the Trustees of which the A.uthor's best thanks are due for their permission to make free use of that valuable collection. The coins also have been drawn from the originals in the British Museum. AV signifies gold ; AB, silver; M, brass.

Edinburgb, June, ISSS.

Dionysus retimnng from Imii*.

Eead of the youthful Dionysus in the style of PraztteLea.

(From the Maseom of the Capitol at Borne.)

CHAP. VI. The Return of the Heracleids, and Foundation of the Doric States 63

CHAP. VLL The Legislation of Lycurgus ^ - - - - 74

CHAP. vm.

The Messenian Wars and Affairs of Sparta down to the Sixth

Century before Christ - - - - - 90

CHAP. IX.

National Institutions and Forms of GoYemment - • - 103 vui CONTENTS.

Page CHAP. X.

Civil History of Attica to the Expulsion of the Fisistratids - 112

CHAP. XL

The Colonies of the Greeks, and the Progress of Art and Literature

from the Homeric Age to the Persian War - - 141

CHAP. xn.

Affairs of the Asiatic Greeks to the Year b.c. 521 - -161

CHAP. XHL

From the Accession of Darius Hjstaspis, B.C. 521, to the Battle of

CHAP. XIV.

From the Battle of Marathon to the Battle of Salamis - - 189

CHAP. XV.

From the Battle of Salamis to the End of the Persian Inyasion - 208

CHAP. XVL

From the Commencement of the Athenian Maritime Ascendancy

to the Thirty Years' Truce between Athens and Sparta - 227

CHAP. xvn.

From the Commencement of the Thirty Years' Truce to the Renewal of Hostilities between Athens and Corinth, \nth. a general View of the Administration of Pericles - - 242

CHAP. xvm.

Causes and Occasions of the Peloponnesian War - - . 254

CHAP. xrs.

From the Commencement of the Peloponnesian War to the End of

the Third Year - - - - - - 266

CHAP. XX.

Fourth and Fifth Years of the Peloponnesian War - - 279

CHAP. XXL

From the Beginning of the Sixth Year of the Peloponnesian War

to the general Pacification of Sicily - - - - 288

CHAP. xxn.

From the general Pacification of Sicily to the Peace of Nicias - 299

CONTENTS. ix

Page CHAP. XXUL

Erom the Peace of Nicias to the Conquest of Melos - - 311

CHAP. XXIV.

The Siciliiin Expedition before the Arrival of Gjlippus in Sicilj - 319

CHAP. XXV.

The Sicilian Expedition, from the Arrival of Gylippus to its Close 333

CHAP. XXVL

From the Close of the Sicilian Expedition to the Restoration of

Alcibiades 342

CHAP. xxvn.

From the Betum of Alcibiades to Athens to the End of the Pelo-

ponnesian War .----- 356

CHAP, xxvin.

From the End of the Peloponnesian War to the Be-establishment

of Democracy at Athens ..... 363

CHAP. XXTX.

Retrospective Survey of the Internal Condition of Greece during

the Peloponnesian War - ... - 368

CHAP. XXX.

From the Expedition of Cyrus the Younger to the Peace of

Antalcidas ...---. 382

CHAP. XXXI.

From the Peace of Antalcidas to the Death of Epaminondas - 396

CHAP. xxxn.

From the Death of Epaminondas to the Battle of Chaeroneia - 413

CHAP. TCXXTTT.

From the Battle of Chaeroneia to the Death of Alexander - 432

CHAP, xxxrv.

From the Death of Alexander to the Time of the Achaean League 442

CHAP. XXXV.

The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues down to the Battle of Sellasia 468

CHAP. XXXVI.

From the Battle of Sellasia to the Destruction of Corinth • 467

a

X CONTENTS.

SUPPLEMENTAKY CHAPTEBS.

CHAP. n.

Reli^on of the Helleoes - . ■ .

CHAP. m.

Hellenic liUxmae. — Foetr; : epic, didactic, l;ne

CHAP. IV.

LiMrature^ — Dramatic Poetij ....

CHAP. V.

FroM CompotilioD. — Hintor; and Eloquence

CHAP, VI Philosophy ......

CHAP. vn.

Architectore ......

CHAP. vin.

Scnlptnre ......

CHAP. IX.

Punting .-.,..

CbBOSOLOOKJO. TlBLB ....

A Volume, showing the Mode in which Books were wiittcti

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

crates . . . Froniianece Athenian Coin of an early Period iii Dionysns, retaming from India, received as a Guest by lea-

rias yi

Head of the youthftil Dionysns . vii From a Pompeian Painting x

A Volume, showing the Mode in

which Books were written . xi Olympian Zeus .... 1 Sitting Figure of Athene . . 4 Entrance to the Treasury of

Atreus, at Mycenae . . 5 lion^Gate, at Mycenae. The Plain of Argos and Gulf of Nanplia to the right . 13 Coin of Thebae, in Boeotia . 14 Specimen of early Greek Sculpture 18

Temple of Theseus, at Athens . 19 Metope from Selinus, representing Hercules carrying the Cercopes, or two Thieves of

Ephesus 29

Paris conveying Helen to Troy . 30 Battle between the Gods and Giants 31

Plain of Troy . . . .

Electra .....

Hero in War Chariot

Zeus and Hera in a chariot, attended ^ Urania, Calliope, and the Horae or Seasons

Daedalus at work

Coin of Heradeia, in Lucania

Plain of Sparta . . . .

Coin of Argos . . . .

Mount Ithome ....

War Chariot . . . .

Coin of Delphi

Circe giving the cup to Ulysses 111

Page Astragalizontes, or Players at

Knucklebones . . . 140 Plan of Athens . . . . ift.

Central Statues from the Western Pediment of the Temple of Athene, at Aegina . .141

Coin of Miletus .... 160 Amazon with the Pelta Lunata

and Bipennis (double axe) . ib.

Croesus on the Funeral Pile . 161

Sardis 164

Bas-relief representation of Cyrus

the Great, upon a Square Pillar

at Mourg-aub, the ancient

Pasargadae . . . .169

Head of Paris . . . .170

Darius passing Judgment upon

Prisoners . . . .171 Bas-relief of a Greek Warrior,

found near Marathon . .186 The Plain and Tumulus of Marathon 169

Persian Head-dress . . . 206 Greek Woman's Head-dress . ib.

Persian Dignitary . . . 207 View of the Islands Salamis and

Painted Greek Vases. — 1. and 2.

From Athens. 3. From Corinth. 4. The celebrated Meidias Vase from Magna Graecia. 6. From Etruria . . .225 Primitive Mode of pressing the

Juice out of Grapes . . 226

Portion of a Ship . . .227 West Front of the Parthenon

restored . .- . . . 241 Bust of Pericles .... 242 Bust of Aspasia .... 252 Two Views of the Aspis, or large

circular Greek Shield . . 253 Restoration of the West Front of Templeof Athene, at Aegina . 254 xa

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page Present State of the Parthenon . 265 Coins of Plataeae . . . 266 Group of the Fates . . .278 Seated Youth . . . , ib.

Tombs t>n the Plains of Plataeae 279

Mjrtilene 287

Coin of Messene .... 288 View of Navarino, the ancient

Pylos 298

Coin of Amphipolis . . . 299 Stetne of Theseus . . .309 Caryatid Portico forming the

decropium of the Erechtheum 310 Group m)m the Western Frieze

of uie Parthenon . . .311 Ancient Drinking-vessel, called

Mastix . . . .318 Coin of Syracuse . . . 319 View of Syracuse . . . 325 Plan of Syracuse . . .326 Coin of Himera . . . .332 Part of Bronze Statue of a Satyr ib.

Metopes from the South Side of

the Parthenon . . . 333 Bust of Aldbiades . « . 341 Coin of Chios . . . .342 Harbours of Athens . . . 354 Cupids making Wreaths . . 355 Coin of Andros .... 356 ViewofEleusis . . . .362

Eros ib.

Coin of Samos .... 363

Phvle 366

Athenian Horseman . . . 367 The Temple of Nike Apteros at

Athens, restored . . . 368 Bust of Socrates . . .380 Funeral Feast . . . .381 Coin of Aegina . . . .382 Horologium of Andronicus at

Athens 394

Grove, Altar, and Statue of

Diana 395

Female Centaur . . . 396

Greek Warrior .... 412 View of Chaeroneia . . . 430

Niobe 431

Alexander on Bucephalus . . 432 Mosaic representing the Battle between Alexander and Darius .... to face 438 Bas-relief from the Villa Albani, showing the Position of Votive Tripods in the public Street . 441

Page Coin of Antigonus . . 442

View of Corinth, showing the

Remains of the ancient Temple

immediately below the Acro-

corinthus .... 456 Figure of a Youth dressed in the

Chiton and Chlamys • . 457 Coin of Sicyon .... 458 Coin of Megalopolis . • . 466 Coin of Epidauros . • . 467 Temple Ruin at Corinth . . 481 Flute used at Bacchic Festivals . 482 From a Greek- Vase . . .489 Bust of Aristotle . . . 490 Group of Physicians and Astro-

nomers 497

Bust of Homer .... 498 Female swinging . • .511 Scene from a Greek Comedy . 512 Mask, with Wig and Bonnet . 514

Masks 521

An agricultural Instrument . ib.

Bust of Demosthenes . . . 522 Coin of Hadrian, with Statue of

seated Jupiter holding a Vic-

toiy 537

Bust of Thucvdides . . .538 Juno in the Diplois . . . 552 Western View of the Athenian

Acropolis .... 553 Doric and Corinthian Capitals . 563 North-West View of Erechtheum

restored 566

Corinthian Capital . . . 568 A ModeUer . . . .569

Sculptor's Shop .... 570 Central Part of the Frieze of the

Parthenon at Athens to face 583 Statue of Amazon . . . 585 Central Figures of the Niobe

Group at Florence . . . 586 Bacchus and Ariadne attended

by Nymphs and Satyrs . . 590 The Muse Urania . . . 591 Lady applying Rouge to her Face 605 Tambourine Player . . . ib.

From Pompeian Painting . . 606 From Pompeian Painting . . 607 Female with Lyre . . .619 Cvdopes at work . . . 620 Euppo-camp . . . .621 Rustic clothed in the Exomis . 636 Pantomimists .... 637 Cymbal Player . . . .638

Introduction

At the very threshold of European higtorj, before any other bation of our continent is known evetl bj name, we meet in its south-eastern portion with a people wbicb preaenta to us mankind it) ita beautiiul and poetical infancy, and gradually rises to tlie full vigour and re»tleas intellectual activity of early manhood. Much beyond this state it never proceeded, for its career wae cut abort by internal dissensions and the all-absorbing power of Rome. Tlii> history of Greece in her b«st days, therefore, is tbe history of European mankind in the age of it^ youth, when all its mental , and physical powers displayed a vigour, activity, and fertilitj which will never cease to awaken tiie admiration of those who know how to appreciate the noblest attributes of bumanily. To dwell upon and study such a histocj b as delightful, refreshing, and invigorating, as that exercise of the imagination when, in times of trouble and adversity, we try to forget the actual world by which we are surrouuded, and betake ourselves to the fair regions of our youth, so full of poetry, beauty, and happiness. But it ia not pleasure and recreation only that we seek and find in the history of Greece ; ita pages, like those of the history of all civilised nations, abound in wholesome and useful lessons for states as well as for individuals, especially in regard to every thing connected with the cultivation of intellect and taste. We there hold communion with a people which not only was inspired with a

2 HISTORY OF GREECE. [Introd.

glowing love of its country and its liberty, but has produced in the arts, in poetry, in oratory, and in philosophy, the noblest and sublimest works to which the human mind has hitherto given birth, and which have ever been, and probably always will be, the high* est models for study and imitation. A nation in which all these excellencies attained so great a degree of perfection and were so harmoniously blended together, has existed only once in the history of the world ; and the fairest flower of humanity is assuredly entitled to claim the deepest interest and the most earnest attention of those who aspire to what is highest in man, and do not allow the merely physical wants of our nature to engross their whole being. Although the Greek nation has long since departed fi'om the scene of history, yet its glory is immortalised by the deeds of its heroes, the writings of its poets and sages, and by the works of its artists, which still excite the admiration of those who are most competent to judge of their beauties, and still exercise their influence upon the best literary and artistic productions of our own time.

The interest inspired by the history of Greece is very different from that which we feel when studying the history of Rome. In the latter there is a unity from beginning to end, the city of Rome always forming the centre, as it were, around which all the events of Roman history are grouped, and upon which they always have a more or less direct bearing. The history of Greece presents no such unity, except in a few isolated cases. Greece, small as it was, consisted of almost as many independent states as it contained cities, so that, properly speaking, a history of Greece is almost an impossibility; the history of many of its numerous little states having come down to us in so fragmentary a condition, that we catch a glimpse at their internal fiflairs, or hear of their doings, only now and then, when they come in contact with one or other of the leading states. What, therefore, is generally called the history of Greece, is in reality not much more than the history of Athens and Sparta. During a short period, Thebes also emerges from its condition of comparative obscurity ; but the other states occupy a prominent place only in proportion as they are connected with Athens and Sparta, between which cities the supremacy in Greece was divided, and on which the other states were more or less dependent. This want of unity, however, is sufficiently compensated for by the variety in social and political institutions, as well as in literature, to which the peculiar circumstances of Greece naturally gave rise ; for, each town or tribe being left to itself and following the bent of its own genius and inclination, a freedom of development was allowed in every particular state, of which there is no example in any other nation. Greece, therefore, is a little world by itself, in which the attentive observer has opportunities

INTBOD.] HISTORY OF GREECE. 3

of seeincr all the varieties and shades of difference that exist in a great nation developed in such a manner as to keep each tribe distinct, and yet so far united with the rest as to form with them but one great family.

Some persons believe that the history of Rome is more practically useful than that of Greece ; and reasons in support of this opinion are certainly not wanting, especially as Rome and her institutions may, in a more direct manner, be regarded as the basis upon which most of our social and political institutions have been reared, and of which they are, in fact, further developments. But in every thing that ennobles man — mentally, morally, and aesthetically, the history of Greece possesses numerous examples of the most striking kind ; and it may be safely asserted that human life, in all the variety of its manifestations, is nowhere more completely exhibited than in the history of the Greek states. If, further, the importance of the history of a nation is to be estimated by the influence which it has exercised upon contemporary nations and upon posterity, and if we allow intellectual influence a higher place than that which is the result of military conquest, then the history of no other nation can compete in usefulness and interest with that of Greece. Greece did not conquer the world by the sword, indeed ; but she subdued it by the superiority of her genius in art and literature, and has thereby acquired an empire more vast and more enduring than that which was established by the arms of the Romans, who, themselves, cheerfully owned that the Greeks were their masters in all the nobler achievements of the human mind. The Greeks extended and communicated to other nations the blessings of civilised life by means of peaceful colonisation along the shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, in Asia, Africa, Sicily, Southern Italy, Spain, and Gaul ; while the conquests of Alexander spread Greek culture and literature from the Mediterranean to the Indus : so that, about the beginning of the Christian era, every man of rank and education, from the Indus to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, was familiar with the language and literature of Greece. Providence seems to have chosen this as one of the great means for facilitating the extension of Christianity ; inasmuch as the documents of the Christian religion, being composed in Greek, thus became accessible at once to all educated persons throughout the civilised world.

In studying the history of Greece, we go back to the perennial spring from which all truly great men in all subsequent ages have deeply drunk. Persons unacquainted with the noble productions of the Greek mind may sneer at our enthusiastic admiration; but it is more than a mere consolation to know that the greatest poets, philosophers, orators, and artists, of all ages and countries, have

B 2

4 HISTOEY OF GREECE. [Ibtbod.

wilUnglj and bumbl; acknowledged their obligatioDB to tlie Greeks, from whoHe teachingB and examples thej haTe deriTed great and powerful aisistance In tlie prodnction of tbeir greatest and sublimeat works. The histoiy of Greece is so rich in eveiy thing that can claim our admiration, esteem, and affection, that we cannot help approaching it with a feeling of J07 and delight.

The poUtical existence of Greece ceased at the time when the Bomans became the rulers of the countrj', but its intellectu^ sovereigntj surrived even the fall of Home in the fiAh centnr; of the Christian eraj naj, a faint shadow of Greek independence continued to exist in the Byzantine empire down to the middle of the fifteenth centurj ; and although the real spirit of ancient Greece had disappeu^ from the tnfling and dissolute capital of the eastern or Greek empire, still a veneration for the great minds and masters of antiquitj was kept alive there, and, after the conquest of Constantinople bj the Turks, was communicated bj the eiiles whom that event drove forth from their native land to the people of south-western Europe. There the seed fell upon a fertile soil : a love of the noble and beautiful in art and literature was its first fhiit ; and the sources of learning being now thrown open, the darkness which had been tianging over Europe for a thousand years was soon dispelled. The revival of letters, which then commenced, was the beginning of a new era in the history of Europe ( the free spiritof Greece rose from its tomb, drove away the mists of ignorance, broke the chains of superstition, emboldened the mind of man to assert its right of independent thought, and thus opened that career of intellectual life and activity which b the pride and glory of modem times.

Gbbbcb fbrms the south- eastero extremitj of Europe. It ia aitn- »ted between the thirty-sixth and fortieth degree of northern latitude, and its whole extent is considera.blj less than the small kingdom of Portugal. In form, Greece is distinguished among the coontriea of Europe bj the same features which distinguish Enrt^ itself from the other continents ; that is, by the great range of its coMt compared with the extent of its surtacc, exceeding in the former respect the whole of Spain and Portugal. Greece 13 a peniiuula, which projects from the main trunk of Europe, grows more and more finely articulated as it advances towards the south, and terminates in the peninsula of Peloponnesus, which resembles an outspread mulberry- leaf, whence its modem name Horea.* Tie position of Greece between the two neighbouring continents, and opposite one of the most fertile regions of Airica, presented * H^i> signiBes a ■nulberrj' tree.

6 HISTOKY OF GREECE. [Chap. 1.

to human activity more advantages than anj other country on earth ; for the surrounding sea afforded the most convenient communication with the civilised nations of the ancient world, and the numerous islands scattered over it offered agreeable and commodious resting-places to the sailor who navigated it. In addition to this, Greece abounded in excellent harbours and spacious bays ; it was watered by numerous rivers, and, being in the enjoyment of a serene and delightful climate, though the winter was often very severe, it was a country no less rich than beautiful. Its productions were as various as its aspects, some parts being more fertile in grain, wine, olives, and many valuable fruits, while others afforded abundant pastures. In precious metals the country was, perhaps fortunately, poor ; but plenty of iron and copper was found in various districts : so that the land provided its inhabitants with everything required for the perfect development as well of their physical as of their intellectual powers.

This land was called by its own sons Hellas^ for which we have adopted the Roman name Greece (JJraecid). The word Hellas, that is, the land of the Hellenes, however, did not at all times apply to the same extent of country ; according to some *, it was originally the name of a town or district in the south of Thessaly, which was afterwards called Phthiotis. From that territory the name is said to have gradually extended to the whole of Thessaly. Biit, according to others, the most ancient Greeks were the Sell! (2;£\Xoi = *E\\oi="£X.Xiyv£t), who dwelt in and about Dodonaf, bearing the name of Graeci (rpaieoi). f The Greeks themselves traced their national name to a mythical hero, Hellen, just as the Graeci derived theirs from a hero, Graecus, who is called a son of Thessalus, while Thessalus is said to have founded Dodona. Another tradition represents a son of Graecus as ruler of Thessaly, for the Graeci are said to have migrated from the country of the Molossians, in the neighbourhood of Dodona, to Thessaly, and to have there been called Hellenes. In later times, when the Hellenes spread farther south, the name Hellas embraced a wider extent of country, and might properly be considered to reach as far as the national features of the Hellenes, so as to include Peloponnesus, and even the islands and colonies occupied and founded by the Hellenes ; though, in a more limited sense, the ancients apply it to the region south of Macedonia as far as the Corinthian isthmus, the southern peninsula deriving its separate designation,

:|; This name seems to kave become known through Tyrrhenian navigators to the nations of the west, who transferred it to all the inhabitants of the country commonly called Greece, who continued to be designated T It even when the ancient tribe of the t^mmi had ceased to exist

Chap. LT NATURE OF THE COUNTRY. 7

according to tradition, from the Phrygian Pelops. In a somewhat loose acceptation, the name Hellas embraced even Macedonia and Epirus. After the destruction of Corinth, in b. c. 146, the Romans gave to the whole of Greece the name Achaia, and subsequently constituted it as a Roman province. If we understand by the term Greece merely the country between the* Cambunian range of mountains in the north and the southern extremity of Peloponnesus, it denotes a land of small extent ; but if we include under it the adjacent islands, the numerous colonies established by the Greeks on the coasts of Thrace, Asia Minor, Africa, Southern Italy, and Sicily, it becomes the designation of a vast empire; and still more so, if we include the conquests of Alexander in the East, into which, through him, the Greek language and civilisation were introduced.

Greece Proper seems to have acquired its present shape by violent convulsions and changes of the earth*s surface, which belong to an extremely remote period, and of which only very obscure and vague trac^tions were preserved among the ancients. The country lies in a volcanic zone, extending from the Caspian to the Azores, and although history informs us of no volcanic erup* tions in Greece, still there were many permanent traces of volcanic agency scattered over its surface, in the hot springs of Thermopylae, Troezen, Aedepsus, and other places. The sea between Peloponnesus and Crete has always been the scene of surprising changes, wrought by volcanic forces. Not long before the Christian era a new hill was thrown up on the coast, near Troezen, and within a short period three small islands were formed in the neighbourhood of Thera.* Earthquakes and inundations have, in all ages, been frequent in Greece, especially in Peloponnesus. It is said that in the earliest times the plains of Thessaly were covered by water, until an earthquake separated the mountains Ossa and Oljrmpus, and, opening an outlet for the river Peneus, formed the celebrated valley of Tempe. Similar catastrophes seem to be implied in the legends about the quarrels of Poseidon with Athene, for the possession of Athens and Troezen, and with Hera for that of Argos ; as well as in the stories relating that the islands of Delos, Anaphe, Rhodes, and Cyprus were at one time covered by the sea, and rose at the bidding of some god. There was, lastly, a tradition that no connexion existed between the Euxine and the Aegean, until the Euxine, breaking through its barriers, formed the Hellespont and Propontis. Another stated that Asia was ancientiy connected with Greece, until the intervening country, which bore the name of Lycaonia or Lyctonia, being struck by