Agriculture: A Text for the School and the Farm - General edition

Front matter

"C

^ CX LIBRIS

UNIVERSITATIS

Preface

The present volume attempts what has’ not yet been aC" complished in elementary texts on agriculture — to give not only class-room lessons and instruction but definite suggestions and outlines in both methods and agencies of extension education by combining practical information with concrete home and school projects to be carried -out by the pupils^ Agriculture, of all subjects, can not be taught wholly from within a text-book. Nor, on the other hand, can it be well taught by the teacher who is not a specialist without a good text-book by means of which to unify the instruction and lead to an intelligent interest in the farm and its problems. Unless the pupils busy themselves with actual agricultural activities, the study becomes mere theory and of doubtful value. This text is a guide to concrete work and interests of farm, garden and the home.

Yet the text is more than a laboratory guide. It gives a large amount of practical, scientific information wholly without technical terms. Further, this information is always so immediately related to definite farm projects as to have meaning and application. Scientific facts and their use go hand in hand. Theory and practise are never divorced. The old maxim, “Learn to do by doing,” is constantly followed, and the doing made natural and worth while to the child by being connected with his home interests.

Hardly a day’s assignment occurs in the book, therefore, that does not present some real project for the pupils to carry out in connection with the farm or home life. Nor are the problems assigned the child without the information or guidance necessary to their intelligent solution. The required facts, principles and descriptions are always at hand, and the problem or project made the means of teaching some valuable lesson in concrete form. No other subject now taught in our schools needs more definite direction and assignments than does agriculture.

The authors believe that the elementary features of agri-

PREFACE

culture can be successfully taught without technicalities. It has been their aim to present a treatment so clear that children from fourteen to sixteen years of age could read and profit if necessary without a teacher. They have also tried to make the subject-matter so vital and helpful that all who are interested in agriculture, even practical farmers, will care to read it, and desire to carry out its lessons in practise.

Teachers will recognize and welcome the attempt to use the study of agriculture in bringing about a closer relation between the school and the home. Not only teachers, but county superintendents and agricultural agents and leaders will appreciate the many helpful suggestions concerning Demonstration Days, Play Contests and Agricultural Club Projects ; for these are coming to occupy an important place in agricultural education. The great amount of care given to make the lessons teachable through the outlining of many definite and practical laboratory, field and home projects will appeal to all who use the text, and save much time for the busy teacher.

The authors gratefully render their acknowledgments for much cordial help received from the staffs of various state colleges of agriculture and the United States Department of Agriculture ; from Mr. Harry Lamon, Senior Poultry Husbandman, United States Department of Agriculture ; from Mr. C. B. Smith, Chief of the Office of Extension Work, North and West, United States Department of Agriculture, and Mr. J. A. Evans, Assistant Chief, Office of Extension Work, South, United States Department of Agriculture ; from Mr. J. C. Hogenson, of Utah; Mr. T. J. Newbill, of Pullman, Washington; Mr. F. L. Griffin, of Corvallis, Oregon; Mr. B. H. Cocheron, of California, and Mr. W. E. Vaplon, of Colorado. Especially valuable have been the suggestions and material received from the colleges of agriculture of Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Ohio, New York, Massachusetts, Alabama, Minnesota, Kansas, Utah and Nebraska.

PART I. FARM CROPS I Corn Culture 1

Corn the king of crops — Corn culture in the South and West — Study of the corn plant — Securing good seed — Testing seed corn — Seed bed and cultivation — Topics for investigation — Corn enemies — Corn play contests — Corn demonstration work-— Corn clubs.

II Agriculture in the South 27

Agriculture the chief of southern industries — Diversified farming in the South — Crops suitable , for southern farming — Animals adapted to southern conditions — Soil management — Topics for investigation— Agricultural demonstrations — Southern agricultural club projects.

III Agriculture in Western States 41

Diversity of agricultural conditions in the West — Three types of western farming — Dry-farming — Dry-farm areas — Dry-farming practise— Management of the dry-farm — Topics for investigation— Demonstrations in dry-farming — Play contests— Club projects.

IV Farming Under Irrigation 56

The reclamation of arid and semi-arid land — Causes of aridity — Reclamation projects — Systems of irrigation — Crop management under irrigation— Dangers from over-irrigation — Topics for investigation — Irrigation demonstrations —

Play contests — Club projects.

V Wheat 73

Bread the , staff of life — Importance of wheat —

The wheat states — Types of wheat — Topics for investigation — Growing the crop — Diseases and insect enemies — Treatment of fungous enemies — Treatment of insect enemies — Problems and experiments.

CaAPTER PAGE

VI Oats 90

Importance of oats as a crop — The oat region — Types of oats — Problems and experiments — Raising the crop — Harvesting and thrashing — Insect enemies and diseases — Topics for investigation— Wheat and oat demonstrations — Play contests — Club projects.

VII Cotton 107

The cotton plant — Region for growing cotton — Raising the cotton crop — Picking cotton — Enemies of the cotton crop — Topics for investigation — Cotton demonstrations — Play contests — Cotton club proj ects.

VIII The Potato 120

Origin — Plant and tuber — Potatoes as a farm crop — The potato region — Growing the crop — ■ Harvesting and storing potatoes — Seed selection —The “tuber-unit” method — Potato enemies —

Problems and experiments — Potato demonstrations— Play contests — Potato clubs.

IX Tobacco Culture 135

The tobacco region — Uses and classes of tobacco Raising the crop — Insect enemies — Topics for investigation— Demonstrations.

X Sugar Farming 145

The importance of sugar as food — Sugar-raising regions — Varieties of sugar — Producing cane sugar — Harvesting and manufacturing — Growing sugar beets — Sugar beets in the dry region — Producing saccharine sorghum^ — Maple sugar — Topics for investigation — Sugar demonstrations — Play contests — Sugar club projects.

XI Forage Crops

The place of forage crops — Important grasses and legumes — Region and extent of forage crops —

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Uses to which the forage plants are put— Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Club projects.

XII The Clovers 163

Wide use of the clovers— Red clover— Study of the plant — Value of red clover on the farm — Raising red clover — Seed bed and seeding — Good seed — Harvesting — Enemies and their control — Other kinds of clover — Problems for investigation.

XIII Alfalfa 177

Study of plant — Distribution of alfalfa — Alfalfa as a forage crop — As a renewer of the soil — Successful raising of alfalfa — Harvesting — Enemies— Topics for investigation.

XIV Other Legumes 190

The cow-pea — Cow-peas as forage — As a soil renewer — The vetches — Varieties — Uses — Soy-beans— Uses and cultivation — Feeding value —

The peanut.

XV Meadows and Pastures 198

Importance of meadows and pastures — Requirements of a meadow — Meadow grasses and legumes— Mixtures for meadows — Care of meadows— Problems for investigation — Pastures — Requirements— Seed mixtures — Care.

PART II. HORTICULTURE XVJ The Vegetable Garden 207

Importance of the garden — The plan of a garden —Planting time and maturity — Culture of garden crops — Vegetables that require special treatment— Insect enemies and their cure — Topics for investigation — Garden demonstrations — Play contests— Garden club projects.

CONTENTS—

CHAPTER PAGE

XVII Culture of Fruits and Nuts 224

Recent advance in fruit and nut farming — The home fruit garden — Varieties and care — Enemies — Problems for investigation — Ccmmercial citrus orchards — Varieties of citrus fruits — The management of citrus orchards — Picking, packing and marketing — Other important fruits of the South and West — Nut farming in the South and West — Topics for investigation — Fruit and nut demonstrations— Club projects.

XVIII The Tomato 242

Importance of the tomato — Varieties — Raising the crop — Pruning and staking — Harvesting and marketing — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations— Play contests — Clubs.

XIX Garden and Orchard Sprays 249

Indispensable in successful gardening — Bordeaux mixture — Use — Lime-sulphur — How made and used — Arsenate of lead— Mixing and applying —

Paris green — Kerosene emulsion — How made and used — Resin-lime mixture.

XX Home Canning of Fruits, Vegetables and Soups 2S8 The value of home canned products — Methods of canning — Canning devices and equipment — Making of brines and sirups — Useful tables — Classification of fruits for canning — Recipes for canning fruits — Classification of vegetables for canning — Recipes — Special recipes — Home canning of soups — Canning of windfall apples, sterilizing cider, making sirup out of windfall apples — Tinning, capping and soldering— Home repair work — Rapid cooling of canned products.

PART HI. THE SOIL

XXI Nature of Soil 302

Origin of soil — Nature of soil — Organic matter —

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PAGE

Texture and its effects— Structure of soils — Structure and tilth — Erosion — Problems and experiments.

XXII Soil Fertility and Plant Growth 314

Plant food and soil fertility — Loss of fertility — Maintaining fertility — Barnyard manure as a fertilizer — Preventing loss from manure — Application to soil — Green manuring — Commercial fertilizers— Use of lime on soils — Crop rotation and fertility.

XXIII Soil Moisture 331

Forms of soil water — Capacity of soils for capillary water — Tillage and soil water — Soil drainage — Surface and tile drains — Topics for investigation— Soil demonstrations — Soil play contests —

Club work.

PART IV. FARM ANIMALS XXIV Farm Animals and Agriculture 344

Work animals — Animals that supply food — Other animal products — Topics for investigation.

XX V Cattle 351

Dairy cattle — Profitable and unprofitable cows —

The dairy type — Selecting dairy cows by milk tests — Dairy breeds — Feeding for milk production • — Producing clean milk — Beef breeds — ^Judging cattle — Tuberculosis in cattle — Topics for investigation— Demonstrations with cattle — Play contests— Club projects.

XXVI Horses 376

The horse-raising states— 'Classes of horses — Breeds — Judging horses — Common defects of horses — Care and training — Feeding; work rations— Topics for investigation — Demonstrations with horses — Play contests — Club projects.

CHAPTER PAGE

XXVII Swine .396

Pork region — Breeds of hogs — Care of hog houses — Feeding; balanced rations — Diseases —

Prevention and treatment for cholera — Topics for investigation — Demonstrations — Play contests — Club proj ects.

XXVm Sheep 418

Importance on farm — Breeds of sheep — Feeding: rations — Experiments and problems — Demonstrations— Play contests — Club work.

XXIX Poultry ’ 428

Importance on farm — Extent of industry — Breeds of chickens — Producing chickens — Hens and incubators— Testing eggs — Feeding chickens — Producing and marketing eggs — Housing poultry — Poultry diseases — Topics for investigation — Poultry demonstrations — Play contests — Club projects.

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PART V. FARM ECONOMICS XXX Farm and Home Management 455

Planning the farm — ^Administration of farms — Farm accounts — Important rules — Ten commandments of agricultu'^e — Topics for investigation —

The farm house — Other farm buildings.

XXXI The Home Grounds and Wood Lot 468

Beautifying the home ground?— Trees — The lawn — The farm wood lot — Tree enemies — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Play contests — Tree and lawn club.

XXXII The County Agricultural Agent 479

Work of the county agent — Financial support —

The county agent and the school — How to make use of the county agent.

XXXIII Farm Implements and Mechanics 487

Inipo'fxance of implements and tools — Farm me-

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chanics — Use of cement — Shop work — Rope tying and splicing — Problems and experiments — Play contests — Club projects.

XXXIV Road Building and Maintenance 498

Importance of good roads — Types of roads — Location of a road — Qualities making a good road — Construction of earth roads — Maintenance — Topics for investigation — Road demonstrations —

Road clubs.

XXXV Birds and Other Insect Destroyers 510

Birds and their food — Birds helpful to agriculture— Harmful birds — Other insect destroyers — Protecting birds — Topics for investigation.

XXXVI Miscellaneous Information 518

How to remove stains — Location of colleges and experiment stations.

To the Teacher . . i

Chapter I

IN the middle western states corn has long been king of farm crops, while cotton has been called the king of crops in the South. The recent extension of the corn belt into the South and even into the West adds still further to the importance of corn. The corn crop of the United States equals in value that of cotton, wheat and oats combined, and totals over a billion dollars a year.

The greater corn belt of the United States consists of Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana and Ohio. These seven states have up to the present raised about half of the world’s crop of corn. The average yield in these states is about 40 bushels to the acre, while the average yield for the entire country is less than 30 bushels to the acre.

1. Corn Culture in the South

During the last ten years the cultivation of corn as a staple farm crop has made rapid advance in all the southern states. The subtropical climate, the favorable soil, the long seasons for maturing, and the copious rainfall make the southern states admirably adapted to the growing of corn.

Corn an aid to diversified farming. — Corn is perhaps the most favorable crop to use as a basis for diversified farming and crop rotation. First of all, it pays. It also encourages the raising of stock. And its cultivation serves to clear the soil of weeds and other plant enemies.

Success of southern corn club boys. — The wonderful opportunities for profitable corn growing in the South are seen in the success of corn club members in various states. In all cases the corn has been raised under actual field conditions, but in accordance with scientific methods of farming. Each of five hundred southern corn club boys has made over 100 bushels on his acre. Sixteen of these boys who lived ^in the cotton states made their acres yield more than 200 bushels. The same year 65 boys in Mississippi averaged 109.9 bushels to the acre. In Alabama 92 boys raised 5,791 bushels of corn on 92 acres. In North Carolina 100 boys averaged 99 bushels to the acre. In the same state 432 boys averaged 63 bushels. In Virginia 16 boys averaged 82 bushels. In Georgia the 10 highest boys in the club averaged 169.9 bushels. In Tennessee 15 boys made an average yield of 127.4. The same year the champion corn grower of Arkansas made 141^ bushels to the acre. The champion in Oklahoma made 80^ bushels. The champion corn club boy of South Carolina made 228 bushels of corn to the acre. The champion of West Virginia made 150 bushels to the acre. One of the champions of Florida raised over 100 bushels to the acre. The champion of Texas made 110^ bushels. All of these yields were made at a substantial net profit per acre. Surely with such records as these it is clearly evident that corn can be made a highly profitable crop in the southern states.

Corn roots at time for last plowing. The stalks are about 5 feet high and stand feet apart. Note how all the inter™ vening space is filled with roots.

2. The Corn Plant

Corn belongs to the ‘‘grass” family ; that is, it is a member of the same group of plants as timothy, wheat, rye, or blue-grass. In order to study the corn plant itself, each member of the class will secure from a near-by field, or bring from home, a complete stalk of corn, taking care to save as much of the root system as possible. Then use the text as a help in studying the plant.

The roots. — Examining the roots, do you find them tough and fibrous, or tender? Do the roots branch, or is there a central tap root? At earing time the roots of a vigorous plant may extend down several feet, and spread out so that they meet the roots from other hills.

The stem and leaves. — How long is the stem? What is its girth just above the root? How many leaves has it? From where do these start? How are they attached? Are the edges of the blades longer than the center? What proof have you?

The leaves are important in the growth of the plant, since in them the plant food is worked over and assimilated, and through them the respiration, or breathing, of the plant is done. The leaves are large, and hence have to stand much tugging in the wind. Are they stronger because of their sheath-like form of attachment? Will they tear as easily in a strong wind if the outer edges are slightly longer than the center?

Tassel and silk. — Strip the husks carefully from an ear in the milk stage, without injuring the silks. How many silks are there? Where are the silks attached to the ear?

While tassel and silk are borne on different parts of the plant, yet it takes both together to make the complete flower of the corn and produce the ear. The tassel represents the male part, and the silk the female part of the flower.

The work of the tassel is to produce pollen. This sifts off in fine grains just as the corn is silking. A particle of pollen lodges on the tip of a silk, and a growth is carried through the center of the tiny thread to its root, where the kernel forms. The pollen in this way fertilises the silks, one silk for each kernel of corn. If for any reason no fertilization occurs, no kernels will be formed.

Record of Stand of Corn

TLOT NO.

The pollen grains are very light, and may be carried by the wind for many rods, thus fertilizing the silks of other plants than their own. This is called cross-fertilisation.

Have you ever seen an ear with part of the kernels white and the rest red or yellow? How is this to be explained? A small patch of popcorn planted near field corn turned out badly mixed, although the seed used was pure. How do you account for the mixture?

3. Good Seed

The first thing necessary to a profitable crop of corn is good seed. Poor seed means a poor stand of corn and many barren stalks. And it requires just as much time and labor and rental for a field of corn that has a quarter

A sample of corn showing gbod tip ends.

or a third of the hills missing or without ears as for the same field with a perfect or one hundred per cent, stand.

Loss from poor seed. — Let us see what a poor stand means in waste. Corn planted 3^ feet in the row each way has 3,556 hills to the acre. One 10-ounce ear to the hill will therefore yield nearly 32 bushels to the acre (figure this up and prove). But an ear weighing only 10 ounces is considered a small ear. Two medium-sized ears, each weighing \2\ ounces, from every hill, will produce 80 bushels to the acre. Most of the large yields in the South have been made by planting from 3^ to 4 feet apart and then drilling a distance of from 8 inches to 24 inches in the

Demonstrations showing results of planting corn at different depths. Diagram of kernel of corn.

row, planting three or four kernels to the hill and thinning to a stand of two stalks.

Selecting the seed. — Seed corn should be selected in the field and not from the wagon or crib. This is in part because as soon as the seed ear is picked it should be hung where it can dry out well. It is also because in selecting seed much besides the ear itself must be taken into ac-

AGRICULTURli

An illustration of the prolific corn common in the southern states. It will grow 2 to 8 ears of corn on each stalk. It requires a subtropical climate, copious rainfall and a long season.

Stringing seed corn,— the first step. The second step. The ^string completed.

count. The entire corn plant, stalk, leaves, roots and husk, as well as environment, should be considered. It is plain that ears grown on stalks that stand but one in a hill, or next to missing hills, have a better chance than those that grow in full hills. A large ear grown under such favorable conditions might not produce so well as somewhat smaller ears grown under less favorable conditions. We want to be sure that the ear is good size because of something in the nature of the ear itself, rather than from what has happened to it while growing. Mature good ears from stalks with several ears and hills having two or three stalks are desirable, for this condition promises a good yield. The stalk should be good color, short jointed, sturdy, not too tall, and have plenty of broad full leaves.

Caring for the seed. — Caring for the seed after it is picked is as important as its selection. The great thing in caring for seed corn just picked from the field is to keep it free from insects and to give it a chance to dry thoroughly. To do this, it must be where it can get plenty of circulating air. The ears should not touch one another, for then they will not dry evenly. Seed corn should therefore never be stacked in piles or thrown into a crib after it is gathered, but should be hung up in some open place sheltered from the direct sun, and from all rain or other fonns of moisture.

4. Testing the Seed Corn

No seed corn should ever be planted that has not been tested ear by ear to see whether it will germinate and produce a strong growth. For, even if the seed is carefully selected and cared for, there are always some ears that will fail to grow, or else produce plants so weak as to be barren or raise but worthless nubbins.

Since it takes but a dozen or fifteen ears to plant an

^he l)lotter seed tester. An excellent type for school use.

Boys and girls bringing corn to school for judging and testing in a Cook County rural school.

acre, and since an acre of average ground should yield at least sixty bushels, each ear of seed represents from four to five bushels of crop. The farmer’s time can be spent in no more profitable way than in making sure that every ear of seed corn planted is sure to grow. The testing

A good ear and a poor ear of corn.

should be done late in the winter, or in the early spring before the farm work opens.

Preparing for testing. — Testing the seed corn costs practically nothing but a little time, care and attention. For, while there are several excellent seed corn testers on the market, none is superior to the several types that can easily be made at home. The rag-doll tester can be easily made, takes up but little space and is very convenient for school work in testing of all kinds of seeds.

Another practical tester is the sawdust germination box. This tester may be prepared as follows: Construct a box

30 inches square and 4 inches deep. Put some sawdust in a bag and soak it in warm water until it is well saturated. Fill the box half full of the sawdust, packing it in well. Take a piece of good white cloth and rule it off in 2^-inch squares, making 100 squares in all, and numbering them from 1 to 100. Place the cloth on the sawdust so that there will be a margin of at least two inches between the sides of the box and the squares. Tack cloth to the edges of the box.

Now take 100 ears of the corn to be tested and lay them, out in a row on a table or planks. Drive a nail into the table every tenth ear, separating the entire lot into 10 groups of 10 ears each. Number the ears from 1 to 100 to correspond with the squares in the tester. This may be done by numbering the places on the edge of the table if care is taken not to change places with the ears.

Making the test. — Remove one kernel from near the butt, one from near the middle, and one from near the tip of the ear; turn the ear over and remove three kernels from corresponding positions on the other side of the ear. These six kernels are to be placed, germ side up and tips all toward one side of the box, in the squares over the sawdust, those from ear No. 1 in square No. 1 and so on, until six kernels have been taken from each of the 100 ears and placed in the tester.

After the kernels are all in position, thus filling the 100 squares, lay a piece of cloth over them, taking care not to disturb their positions. Sprinkle this cloth well with warm water. Now lay over this another cloth about twice the

School testing seed corn in sawdust germination boxes.

Putting the rag dolls into a bucket, which is then wrapped in old newspapers and kept in a safe place until the kernels of corn have sprouted.

size of the box. Fill in on top about two inches of damp sawdust, packing* it down very firmly. Then fold the edges of the cloth over the sawdust, covering it so that it will not dry out.

Reading the test. — At 'the end of the germination period the cover must be removed without disturbing the kernels. This can be done by carefully rolling up the top pad of sawdust in its cloth. The sprouts will be some two inches long, and may in some cases have grown through the first cloth covering.

It is easy now to tell which are the strong, weak or dead seed ears. All ears should be rejected if even one of the six kernels failed to sprout. For a loss of one out of six means 16 2-3 per cent, of the crop gone if all ears were of this kind.

Ears whose six kernels may all sprout, but which start weakly, should also be thrown out. For it is these weak plants that later turn out to be barren, or prove an easy prey to dry weather or some insect enemy. If only those ears are planted whose six kernels all produce strong vigorous sprouts in the germination box, the greatest obstacle in the way of a perfect stand will have been removed.

5. Seed Bed and Cultivation

Corn in the South requires a deep and well-prepared seed bed as well as a rich soil. In western and northern states the plowing need not be so deep, chiefly on account of the winter snows, freezing, and a more virgin soil.

Plowing. — Plowing for corn in most southern regions may with profit be prepared in the fall and should reach a depth of from 8 to 12 inches. In many cases it will pay to use a subsoil plow set to even a greater depth. Fields that have had but shallow plowing should not, how-

Corn club boys gntlierin.Li; so?;l corn.

This shows crop results of good seed and poor seed. Each picture shows the yield fromi one acre in adjoining fields. Upper picture, poor seed: yield, 22.8 bushels ; marketable, 73.9%; nubbins, 26.1% ; seed, none. Lower picture, good seed: yield, 66.5 bushels; marketable, 86.7% ; nubbins, 6.3% ; seed, 7%.

ever, be plowed to full depth the first season, but should be gradually increased from year tO' year, as too large a mass of subsoil may be turned up at one time.

Deep plowing brings to the surface comparatively new and unused soil, admits air and moisture to a greater depth, and allows the roots to penetrate farther into the soil. The turning under of organic matter also provides a supply of humus and makes the lower strata of the soil more porous.

Why corn needs to be cultivated. — Corn is to be cultivated after planting for three main purposes: (1) To

kill the weeds, (2) to admit air to the roots, and (3) to form dust mulch and preserve the moisture of the soil.

From the time germination begins the growth of the plant must be unchecked if a full crop is to be secured. When corn has become yellow and spindling from being choked by weeds, or from the baking of uncultivated soil around it, it is permanently injured and will never fully recover. Only the rich green color and sturdy stock of the rapidly growing plant give promise of a full yield.

When to begin cultivation. — Cultivation should begin early. Under average conditions, disking and harrowing before planting and two harrowings after planting should be given before the corn comes up. This will keep the soil from baking, and keep the weeds down until the plants are large enough to cultivate. The time to kill weeds is just as they are starting. Let them once get well rooted, and they are hard to manage.