History of the Indian Archipelago : containing an account of the manners, arts, languages, religions, institutions, and commerce of its inhabitants

Front matter

JX- - v ' I

HISTORY

OF THE

Introduction

That great region of thfc globe, which European geographers have distinguished by the name of the Indian Archipelago, became well known to the more civilized portion of mankind, and was first frequented by them much about the same time that they discovered and knew America. From time almost immemorial, Europe had, indeed, been supplied, in the course of a circuitous and intricate commerce, with some of its rarest productions, but the very name of the country of those production^ was unknown ; and, in regard to all knowledge not mferely speculative or curious, our discovery of the Indian Archipelago is a transaction of history as recent as that of America. The Indian Archipelago, at the moment of the discovery of both, may be advantageously compared even with the New World itself, to which, in fact, its moral and physical state bore a closer resemblance than any other portion of the globe. It was greatly inferior to it in extent, but in the singularity, utility, va-

TOL. J. A riety, and extent of its animal and vegetable pro* ductions, and in the civilization and number of its inhabitants, it was greatly superior.

To prepare the reader for the details which are to be furnished in the course of the following work, respecting this interesting and important subdivision of the globe, I shall in this short introduction lay before him a rapid sketch of the geographical, physical, and moral features of the country.

The Indian Archipelago, whether from number or extent of particular islands, is by far the greatest group of islands on the globe. Its length embrace* forty degrees of longitude close to the line, namely, from the western extremity of the island of Sumatra, to the parallel of the Araoe islands, not including in this estimate the greater portion of the immense island of New Guinea, and its breadth thirty degrees of latitude, from the parallel of 1 1 ° south to 19° north, thus comprehending, with the intervening seas, an area of 4 \ millions of geographical, or about 5£ millions of statute miles.

Its general position is between the great continental land of New Holland and the most southern extremity of the continent of Asia. It is centrically situated with respect to all the great and civilized nations of Asia, and lies in the direct and inevitable route of the maritime intercourse between them. Its eastern extremity is within three days ml of China j its western not above three weeks sail from Arabia. Ten days sail carries a ship from China to the richest and most centrical portion of the Archipelago, and not more than fifteen are required for a similar voyage from Hindustan. Taking a wider view of its geographical relations, it may he added, that the voyage from Europe to the western extremity of the Archipelago, may be readily performed in ninety days, and has been often done in less, and that the voyage from the west coast of America may be effected in little more than one half that time. Such are the extraordinary advantages of the geographical and local positions of these fine countries.

The following short abstract of the topography of the Archipelago will serve our present purpose. The Archipelago contains three islands of the first rank in size, namely, Borneo, New Guinea, and Sumatra. These are not only the largest islands of the Archipelago, but the greatest of our globe, excluding, of course, the continent of New Holland. Of the second rank, it contains a peninsula and an island, viz. Java and the Malayan peninsula. Of the third rank, it contains three islands, viz. Cele* bes, Luzon or Luconia, and Mindanao, each of them equal in size to the greatest island of America. Of the fourth rank, it contains at least sixteen, which are as follow, beginning from the westward, viz. Bali, Lambok, Sambawa, Chandana, Mores or Mangarai, Timar, Ceram, Buroe, Gilolo,

* INTRODUCTION.

Palawan, Negros, Samar, Mindoro, Panay, Leytey and Zebu. Of the relative importance, value, and populousness of the different islands, the size is by no means a just test, as a slight knowledge of those enumerated will soon teach us. The principal advantage of the great islands arises from their capacity of affording large alluvial tracts, and considerable rivers, both of them from the facilities afforded by them for raising a supply of food, the principal circumstances which have contributed to promote population and civilization. We discover, that the great tribes which have influenced the destinies of the inferior ones, have all had their origin in the larger islands, and the most considerable in the most fertile. Many valuable islands of small size are excluded from the above enumeration, which will in the sequel demand a particular account* Besides such, the inspection of the map will discover a vast number of minute isles and islets, of which it may truly be said that they are innumerable.

The whole Archipelago is arranged into groups and chains of islands, with here and there a great island intervening. The islands are upon the whole thickly strewed, which gives rise to innumerable Straits and passages which would occasion from their intricacy a dangerous navigation, were the seas of the Archipelago not distinguished, beyond all others, by the proximity of extensive tracts of land, — by 6 tlieir pacific nature, — and by the uniformity of the prevailing winds and currents.

Five portions of the ocean which encompass or intersect the different islands of the Archipelago me of considerable extent, and tolerably free from islands. To these European navigators have given the name of seas. The first of these in extent is that portion of the China sea which lies between Borneo and the Malay peninsula ; the second the. tract of waters between Borneo and Java called the Java seas ; the third that lying between Celebes on one side, Boeroe and Ceram on the other, and the chain of islands to the south, of which Tim-ur and Timurlant are the most conspicuous ; the fourth is the clear tract of ocean lying between Celebes and Borneo to the south and west, and Mindanao and the Sooloo chain of isles to the north, and which takes its name from the latter ; and tho fifth and last the basin formed by the Sooloo chain, Borneo, Palawan, the south-west side of the Philippines, and Mindanao.

The Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean, wash the western shores of the Archipelago, the Great Pacific its southern and eastern shores, and the China sea its northern. The western boundary of the Archipelago is formed by the Malayan peninsula and Sumatra. Here there are two approaches only, viz. the Straits of Malacca and Sunda. The southern boundary of the Archipelago is formed by a long chaiji

JNTRODUCTION.

of contiguous islands, the most singular which the physical form of the globe anywhere presents. It commences with Java, and terminates nearly with Timurlaut, running in a straight line almost due east and west, in a coursp of 1600 geographical miles. The approaches into the Archipelago fron^ this quarter are numerous and narrow, proportionate to the number of islands, and their vicinity to each other. The most important, either from their safety, or their affording to the navigator the most convenient access to the most frequented portions of the Archipelago itself, or a thoroughfare to countries beyond it, are the straits between Java and Bali j between this and Lombok, between Lombok and Sambawa ; between Sambawa and Ombo ; between Ombo and Flores ; and between Timur and Ombay. The eastern boundary of the Archipelago is more extensive, broken, and irregular, than any of the rest. It is principally formed by the great islands of New Guinea, Gilolo, Mindanao, and Luconia. The approaches from this quarter are wider than from any other, and the largest are by navigators denominated passages, as the Gilolo passage, the Molucca passage, and the Mindanao passage, which names readily direct us to their situations. Towards the eastern and western 4ends of New Guinea, there are narrow accesses to the Archipelago, both of which receive the name of the illustrious navigator Dampier.

INTRODUCTION.

The northern barrier of the Archipelago is formed by the great islands of Lueonia, Palawan, and Borneo. There are unsafe and intricate passages for the navigator between the principal .chain of the Philippines, Palawan, and Borneo, but the great thoroughfare of the Archipelago, corresponding with the straits of Sunda, lies to the west of the latter island by three channels, formed by the two inferior islands of Billiton and Banca, in the passage between the great islands of Borneo and Sumatra.

The whole of the Archipelago is situated within the tropics. The equinoctial line runs nearly through its centre, and almost the whole, with the exception of the Philippines, is situated within ten degrees on each side of it. There is necessarily a general uniformity in climate, in animal and vegetable productions, and, of course, in the character of the different races of inhabitants. Notwithstanding this, a nearer acquaintance both with the country and its inhabitants soon points out to us that there is much diversity in both, and we shall find that the whole is capable of being subdivided into Jive natural and well-grounded divisions or classes* I shall briefly run over these, giving, as I go along, the most prominent characters which distinguish the one from the other. In delineating these characters, I shall consider the more civilized races only, for the habits of the mere savages of all climates are nearly assimilated, for the influence of physical and local circumstances on the character of our species, does not become obvious and striking until society has made considerable advances. Beginning from the west, whence civilization appears to have originated, and from whence it spread to the east, the first division comprehends the Malayan Peninsula, — the island of Sumatra, — the island of Java, — the islands of Bali and Sombok, — and about twothirds of the western part of Borneo, up to the parallel of longitude 116° east. The animal and vegetable productions of this quarter are peculiar, and have a higher character of utility than those of the other divisions ; the soil is of superior fertility, and better suited for rearing vegetable food of the first quality. The civilized inhabitants have a general accordance in manners, language, and political institutions ; they are far more civilized than those of the other divisions, and have made considerable progress in arts, arms, and letters. Rice is their food, and it is generally abundant.

The island of Celebes is the centre of the second grand division, which comprehends, besides that great island itself, the smaller ones on its coast, as Bouton and Salayer, — the whole chain of islands from the parallel of east longitude 116° to 124°, with the whole east coast of Borneo withirt the same limit, and up to about 3° of north latitude. The animal and vegetable productions of this quarter have generally a peculiar character, the soil is of inferior fertility to that of the last, and less suited to the rearing of rice or corn of the first quality. The civilized inhabitants have made considerable progress in the useful arts, but their civilization is of an inferior type to that of the first division. In language, manners, and political institutions, they agree surprisingly among themselves, but differ widely from their western neighbours. Rice is their principal food, but it is not abundant, and ^ome sago is occasionally used.

The third division differs in a most remarkable manner from all the rest. Its extent is from the paxallel of longitude 124° to 130° E., and from south latitude 10° to north latitude °2°. The character of the monsoons is here reversed. The eastern monsoon, which is dry and moderate to the west, is here rainy and boisterous ; the westerly monsoon, rough and wet in the two first divisions, is here dry and temperate. The greater number of the plants and animals of the two first divisions disappear in the third, where we have strange productions, in both kingdoms, unknown to any other parts of the world. This is the native country of the clove and nutmeg, and the only country in the world which produces them in perfection. For raising the higher classes of vegetable food, the soil is of inferior fertility. Rice is scarcely produced at all, and the staple food of the people is sago. In language, manners, and political instil tutions, the people of this quarter agree among themselves, and differ essentially from all their neighbours. They are far inferior to the inhabitants of the first two divisions in civilization, in power, and in knowledge of useful arts. They never acquired of themselves the use of letters.

The fourth division is the least distinctly characterized, but points of dissimilitude sufficiently striking and obvious mark its character, to entitle it to be considered separately. It extends from the parallel of 1 1 6° E. longitude to about 128°, and from north latitude 4° to 10°, and includes the north east angle of Borneo, the great island of Mindanao, and the Sooloo Archipelago. The vegetable products of this division are in a good measure peculiar, but partake, in some degree, of the character of those of the three first divisions united. The clove and nutmeg are indigenous, but of imperfect and inferior quality. Sago is very often consumed, but rice is, again, the principal article of food. In civilization the inhabitants are superior to those of the third division, and inferior to those of the Jirst, or even of the second. Their language, manners, and institutions, are peculiar, agreeing among themselves2 and differing from those of all their neighbours.

The fifth and last division is the well-known group of the Philippines, extending from the pa? rallel of 10° to 19° of north latitude. A geogra* phieal situation so different from that of all the iOther countries of the Archipelago, produces much relative difference of climate and production. This division is the only portion of the Archipelago within the limit of the boisterous region of hurricanes, and this circumstance alone gives a peculiar character to the country. The soil is of eminent fertility, and rice is the food of the more civilized races. The mould is eminently favourable to the growth of the tobacco plant and sugar-cane, but produces neither the pepper of the first division, the fine spiceries of the third, nor some of the delicate and peculiar fruits which characterize those coun* tries of the Archipelago which lie within ten degrees of the equator, and which are unknown to all other regions of the earth. The manners, the political institutions, and, above all, the language of the inhabitants, differ in genius and form from those of the inhabitants of all the other divisions.

Such are the particular characters of the different divisions of this great country. The more general features of the whole Archipelago, and those distinctive marks which characterize it from other portions of the world, are easily enumerated. It has the common characters of other tropical countries,—heat, moisture, and luxuriant vegetation.

It is throughout of a mountainous nature, and its principal mountains from one extremity to another are volcanoes. It is very generally covered with deep forests of stupendous trees. The number of grassy plains is very small, and there are no arid sandy deserts. It is distinguished from every cluster of islands in the world, by the presence of periodical winds, and from all countries whatever by the peculiar character of these. The Archipelago is the only country of Asia situated upon the equinoctial line, or very close to it. If not the most extensive, it is at least the widest spread region, — the region of most curious and various production, and of highest indigenous population whitfh exists anywhere in the immediate neighbourhood of the equator. The insularity of the whole region, the contiguity of the different islands, and the facility and rapidity of the navigation, are also prominent and characteristic features. The animal and vegetable productions of the Archipelago either differ wholly from those of other countries, or are important varieties of them. In one quarter, even the principal article of food is such as man nowhere else subsists upon. The productions of the ocean are not less remarkable for abundance and variety th^n those of the land.

The distinctive features now described have necessarily produced the most extensive influence on the character and civilization of the inhabitants*

INTRODUCTION.

The most abject races only — those excluded by more powerful neighbours from the sea, are hunters, and the shepherd state ean have ryo existence at all in countries destitute of grassy plains, and rendered almost impassable by the deepness of their forests. AH migrations are by water. Their boats and canoes are, to the Indian islanders, what the camel, the horse, and the ox, are to the wandering Arab and the Tartar ; and the sea is to them what the steppes and the deserts are to the latter. The Indian islanders are, by necessity, navigators and fishermen, and, from this condition, the progress of civilization among them is to be traced. When population accumulated in 4?his stage of social existence, those who were in the vicinity of fertile lands applied to agriculture, and became in time the most numerous and civilized races. The Indian islanders can never effect conquests on more civilized neighbours as did the barbarians of the north, from the want of those provisions, the existence of which was implied in the very nature of a Tartar camp, and the impossibility, therefore, of moving in great and overwhelming bodies. Beside the incapacity arising from this cause, it may be farther remarked, that although barbarians may acquire a sufficient skill in military tactics, to prove an overmatch for a more civilized enemy, they can never do so in naval tactics, which in their nature being of a more complex character, suppose a skill and progress in so* vol. i. * ciety, which mere barbarians never attain ; nor, did they even attain them, could a knowledge of naval affairs be supposed compatible with that necessary for conducting land operations. A predatory warfare is the only one suited to the genius of the Indian islanders ; even their plundering incursions they have scarce ever carried beyond the limits of the Archipelago. These important facts ought to be kept in mind in every attempt to trace the histoiy of their migrations, and in forming an estimate of their character and state of society.

In discussing the general features of the topography of the Archipelago, there are two prominent and important facts regarding the condition of the different races of inhabitants, which are of great interest and importance. The first of these refers to an original and innate distinction of the inhabitants into two separate races. In the Indian Archipelago there are — an aboriginaljfeV or brown complexioned race, — and an aboriginal negro race ; and, the southern promontory of Africa excepted, it is the only country of the globe which exhibits this singular phenomenon. The second fact is not of less importance, and relates to the influence of food in forming the character of the different races. We may judge of the physical character of each country by the moral character of its inhabitants, or of the latter by the former. No country has produced a great or civilized race, but a country which by its fertility is capable of yielding a supply of farinaceous grain of the first quality. Man seems never to have made progress in improvement, when feeding on inferior grains, farinaceous roots, on fruits, or on the pith of trees* The existence of fine spices, odoriferous gums, and, it may be added, gold, gems, and the rarer productions of the animal and vegetable kingdom, has no tendency in the state of society in which the Indian islanders are, to promote civilization. One might be almost tempted to think they were prejudicial to it, for the very countries in which they are most abundant, are among the least civilized of the Archipelago. It is the country of the cannibals of Sumatra which chiefly produces gold and frankincense j that of those of Borneo which produces gold, frankincense, camphor, and diamonds. The inhabitants of the Spice Islands never acquired the use of letters, and were wandering almost naked in their spicy forests, until the Hindus, the Javanese, Malays, and Arabs, in times comparatively very recent, taught them to clothe themselves with some decency. The savages of New Guinea, surrounded at this day by the most splendid, beautiful, and rare objects of animal and vegetable nature, live naked and uncultivated. Civilization originated in the west, where are situated the countries capable of producing corn. Man is there most improved, and his improvement decreases, in a geographical ratio, as we go eastward, until, at New Guinea, the termination of the Archipelago, we find the whole inhabitants an undistinguished race of savages.

A Papua ©r itkuro

of the Indian Islands .

one of tlie Brawn complexianed Race .

BOOK L

CHARACTER.

CHAPTER L

MYSICAL FORM OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO.

Two distinct races of inhabitants exist—* a brown and a negro race. — Their geographical distribution. — Description of the brown race.— Stature. — Shape. — Features. — Their hair. — Complexion. — Comparison with other races qf men.— The standard of personal beauty among them. — Description of the negro races. — Account of an individual by Major Macinnes. — Sir Everard Home's account of a Papuan

brought to England by Sir S. Raffles Sonnerafs account of

the Papuas of New Guinea. — - The negro race to all appear* ance art inferior one to the brown-complexioned race.— Conjectures respecting the origin of the two races. — Indian islanders possess robust constitutions.— Diseases to which they ^ are liable.— 'Fevers. — Small-pox.— Venereal disease. — Gout and Scrofula hardly known. — Cutaneous disorders very prevalent.— Intestinal worms.— Parturition.

1 here are two aboriginal races of human beings inhabiting the Indian islands, as different from each

VOL. I. B other as both are from all the rest of their species. This is the only portion of the globe which presents so unusual a phenomenon. One of these races may generally be described as a brown-complexioned people, with lank hair, and the other as a black, or rather sooty-coloured race, with woolly or frizzled hair.

The brown and negro races of the Archipelago may be considered to present, in their physical and moral character, a complete parallel with the white and negro races of the western world. The first have always displayed as eminent a relative superiority over the second as the race of white men have done over the negroes of the west. All the indigenous civilization of the Archipelago has sprung from them, and the negro race is constantly found in the most savage state. That race is to be traced from one extremity of the Archipelago to another, but is necessarily least frequent where the most civilized race is most numerous, ajid seems utterly to have disappeared where the civilization of the fairer race has proceeded farthest, as in Sumatra, Java, and perhaps Celebes, just as theCaribs, and other savages of America, have given ^vay to the civilized invaders of Europe. The negro races of the Archipelago increase in numbers in the inverse ratio of improvement, or, in other words, as we proceed eastward. In some of the Spice Islands their extirpation is matter of history.

They are the principal races in some of the islands towards New Guinea, and nearly the sole inhabitants of the portion of that great island itself, which, from its physical character, we have a right to include within the limits of the Archipelago.

A more particular account of both must now be given.

The brown-coloured tribes agree so remarkably in appearance among themselves, that one general description will suffice for all, and the varieties may g^&tially be considered rather as objects of curious than useful distinction. Their persons are short, squat, and robust. Their medium height may be reckoned, for the men, about five feet two inches, and for the women, four feet eleven inches, which gives about four inches less than the average stature of Europeans. Their lower limbs are rathgr large and heavy, but not ill-formed. Their arms are rather fleshy than muscular. The bosoms of the females are small for the robustness of their frames, and the whole bust wants that elegance of symmetry which belongs to the women of Hindustan. The face is of a round form ; tie mouth is wide ; the teeth, when not discoloured by art, remarkably fine ; the chin is rather of a square form ; the angles of the lower jaw remarkably prominent \ the cheek-bones are high, and the cheek consequently rather hollow j the jnose is short and small, never prominent, but never flat ; the eyes are small, always black, as with other orientals, among whom any other eolour would be considered a monstrosity.

The complexion is generally brown, but varies a little in the different tribes. Neither climate, nor .the habits of the people, seem to have any thing to do with it. The fairest races are generally towards the west, but some of them, as the Battaks of Sumatra, upon the very equator. The Javanese, who live most comfortably, are among the darkest people of the Archipelago ; the wretched Dayaks, or cannibals of Borneo, among the fairest*

The hair of the head with the brown-coloured race is long, lank, harsh* and always black. There is a remarkable connection, it may here be observed, between the colour and texture of the hair and the colour of the complexion. The hair is dark and harsh in proportion as the complexion is dark, until, in the jet black African, it end in a woolly or frizzled texture*- If, among Asiatic nations, an individual be discovered with a complexion of remarkable fairness, we may reckon upon finding the hair of a brownish hue, and of a soft European texture.

The hair on every part of the body of the Indian islander, the head excepted, is scanty. On the limbs and breast of the male there is no hair at all, and the beard is naturally very defective. The Mahomedaft priests, in imitation of the Arabs, are fond of wearing a beard> but the utmost they can obtain, by great care and assiduous culture, are a few straggling hairs, which make them an object of ridicule to those who pride themselyes on this supposed evidence of manhood. The rest of the community pluck out, at an early period of life, what no pains would render respectable.

To express sijrprise at, or to attempt to account for this scarcity of hair with the Indian islanders, would fee about /as reasonable as to investigate the cause why other races have a superfluity. The fact of a scarcity of hair with a considerable portion of the human species is now well ascertained, and, whether in the present instance it bear any analogy to the defect of hair in the lower animals, common to all tropical countries, is of little moment. *

* The following is the illustrious Dampier's excellent description of the brown-coloured race, in the persons of the people of Mindanao : " The Mindanayans, properly so called, are men of mean statures, small limbs, straight bodies, arid little heads* Their faces are oval, their foreheads flat, with black small eyes, short low noses, pretty large months; their lips thin and red, their teeth black, yet very sound ; their hair black and straight ; the colour of their skin tawney, but incline ing to a brighter yellow than some other Indians, especially the women. They have a custom to wear their thumb-nails very long, especially that on their left thumb, for they do never cut it, but scrape it often." — Dampkfs Voyages^ Vol. X?

Compared to Europeans, Arabs, Persians, Tartars, Bermans, and Siamese, the Indian islanders must be considered as an ill-looking race of people. Ill person they are by no means so handsome as the Chinese nations, who resemble the latter, but they have much better features. These notions of beauty are not relative, for the standard of beauty among the Polynesian tribes is nearly the same as among ourselves. The man that is considered handsome* or the woman that is pointed out as beautiful by an European, are the same that are allowed to be so by their own countrymen* Even with respect to colour, there is not that wide difference which might be expected iti our tastes. They admire fairness of complexion, though naturally enough not the sickly hue of the European, the only form in which it is presented to their observation. They admire the complexion of the p. 325, 326»— -Linschoten's account oi the Javanese is also to-. lerably faithful, — " These Javans," says he, " are of yerie ffetfull and obstinate nature, of colour much like the Malay- €fs, brown, and not much unlike the men of Brasilia ; strong &nd \tell set, big limmed, flatte faces, broad thicke cheekes, gfeat eye-browes, smal eyes, little beard, not past three or four hayres upon the upper-Jippe and the chinne; the hayre <*n their heades very thyn and short, yet as blacke as pitche, frhose picture is to be seen by the picture of the Malayen of Malacca, because they d^ell and trafficke much together*"— = JLinschoten*s Voyages^ p. 34*.

half breed, and the Malays in their poetry often panegyrise a beauty of this class. The standard of perfection in colour is virgin gold, arid as an European lover compares the bosom of his mistress to the whiteness of snow, the East Insular lover eotnpares that of his to the yellowness of the precious metal. It is with the view of attaining this ctedred complexion, that the Javanese, when ift full dress, smear their bodies with a yellow edsmdtic. The complexion is scarce ever clear, and a blush is hardly at any time discernible in it. • This, however", only distinguishes them from the European race, and not from any of the Asiatic races.