An account of the Island of Ceylon : containing its history, geography, natural history, with the manners and customs of its various inhabitants : to which is added, the journal of an embassy to the Court of Candy : illustrated by a map, charts

Front matter

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AN

Dedication

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the escort which accompanied General Macdowal in his embassy to the Court of Candy, I was enabled to notice the many advantages to be derived from this valuable possession, as well as to acquire a knowledge of its actual state, a subject hitherto but superficially treated of: and it struck me that the observations I had made might afford some information to the public, and perhaps might not be altogether useless in respect to more important considerations. All the merit, however, which I can lay claim to in the following volume, is an authentic relation of facts ; and I hope that your Royal Highness, with your usual goodness, will excuse the want of elegant and scientifick composition in one who has spent his life in a military career.

Whatever may be the fate of this publication, the condescension of your Royal Highness, in allowing it to be ushered into the world under your august patronage, has impressed the most lively and lasting gratitude on the mind of

Chapter I

Introduction — History of the Island previous to its being taken possession of by the English — The successive Conquests of the Portuguese , Dutch , and English. - Page 1.

Chapter II

General Description of Ceylon — The Harbours — Monsoons — Climate — Rivers — Internal Communications — Soil — General Divisions — British Dominions — Trincomalee — Malativoe — Jafnapatam — Manaar . - - - - - - - 31.

Chapter XVIII

Journal of tie Embassy to the Court of Candy , in 1800. 375.

Table of Roads in Ceylon.

Zondon Zub/it/ied for C K'J r - Baldwin, J '<•«- Jiredtje .f/rwl . fun. 1.1S03 .

AN

A C C O U N T

OF

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

Chapter I

Introduction — History of the Island previous to its being taken possession of by the English — The successive conquests of the Portuguese, Dutch, and English.

ON my arrival in Ceylon with his Majesty’s forces, in the year 1797 3 I was induced by curiosity, and the contradictory and romantic accounts I had heard of this island, to make particular enquiries with regard to its present state ; and I found an agreeable amusement in taking notes of such facts and objects as appeared to me remarkable. In the prosecution of my enquiries, however, I found that they might be rendered conducive to objects of infinitely greater importance than temporary amusement. The accounts hitherto published of this island had been extremely imperfect; as the watchful jealousy of the Dutch both excluded the re sear dies of strangers, and prevented their own people from publishing any observations which they might have

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THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

made during their stay in the island. Few, indeed, of that nation were anxious to inquire into the history either of the country, or its inhabitants. The desire of increasing their wealth was with them the ruling passion ; and while they could carry on their commerce in the towns on the sea-coast, they concerned themselves very little with the interior of the island. Many Dutchmen, even of the better sort, had resided on Ceylon for a considerable number of years, without having ever been so much as a few leagues from the coast. Even those sent to command there were seldom men of enlightened minds; and provided they could secure their own interests, they were unwilling to occupy their attention with the prosecution of plans which might have been productive of national benefits.

All these causes conspired to render the accounts which Europeans possessed of this island, exceedingly imperfect ; and I was soon convinced that the narrow policy of the Dutch government, and the selfish views of their officers, had made them overlook many things which tended greatly to increase the value of the colony. As it was now in our possession, these ideas made a forcible inipression on my mind ; and the hope that 1 might contribute to render this new acquisition more valuable to my country, gave new eagerness to my researches. The vast importance of the island both in a commercial and political view made me confident that it would not be given up at any future peace ; for with the exception of Bombay, it contains the only harbour either on the Coromandel or Malabar coasts, in which ships can moor in safety at all seasons of the year ; and even before it came into our possession, its internal produce presented several rich articles to commerce. Any attempt therefore to throw light on the present state of the island, and thus to point out the means of improving its internal cultivation, and securing it against the attacks of external enemies, would at least have the merit of aiming at a national benefit.

With these objects in view I continued my enquiries ; and was fortunate enough to have every opportunity in the prosecution of them which the present situation of the island affords. Daring a residence of three years I visited almost every part of the sea-coast ; and before I left the island, I was become quite familiar with its general appearance, its natural productions, the present state of its cultivation, and the manners and dispositions of its inhabitants. On an embassy being sent to wait upon the native king of the island, I was also among those officers who were appointed to accompany it; and by this means had an opportunity of observing the interior of the country, into which the jealousy of the natives has seldom permitted any European to penetrate.

I lie advantages which I derived from personally visiting the greater part of the island, were very much improved by the assistance of Mr. Dormieux, a Dutch gentleman, in the English service, who had resided upwards of twenty years in Ceylon, and had during that period acquired a complete knowledge both of the manners and language of its several inhabitants. By his means, therefore, I was enabled to get over many obstacles which presented themselves to my researches ; and the valuable commu-

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THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

ni cations of several friends have rendered me essential service in? completing my accounts of Ceylon. Still, however, I have been> careful not to advance any fact of which I was not either an eye-witness, or which was not derived from information which no one could hesitate to believe. The manners and customs of the inhabitants, I have endeavoured to describe in the manner they impressed my mind at the time I observed them. I have followed the same plan in giving an account of the natural productions of the island ; and hence my observations may be thought more calculated for the general reader, than the man of science. But I hope the public will make some allowance for the habits of my profession ; and if I succeed in affording either amusement or instruction, I trust they will excuse a little deficiency in systematic knowledge.

Before proceeding to the principal object of this work, a description of the present state of the Island of Ceylon, it will probably gratify curiosity to give a short account of its history, and the successive changes it lias undergone, since it came into the possession of Europeans. Such a sketch is even necessary to throw light on its present state, and to point out the way to its farther improvement, by shewing the errors committed by its former possessors.

Previous to the arrival of the Portuguese, little is known of the history of Ceylon. It is said to have been celebrated for its spices even in the earliest ages ; and it is hence that Solomon is said to have brought the spiceries and precious stones, for the use and embellishment of his temple. Such vague traditions, how-

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

ever, are nowise to be depended upon ; and the wild stories current among the natives, throw no light whatever on the ancient history of the island. The earliest period at which we can look for any authentic information, is the arrival of the Portuguese under Almeyda, in the year 1505. Being accidentally forced by stress of weather into one of the harbours of Ceylon, lie was hospitably received by the inhabitants. The situation of the island, and its valuable productions, made him turn his attention to cultivating a closer connection with the natives ; and the difficulty which they felt in defending themselves against the attacks of the Arabs, rendered them extremely willing to enter into an alliance with a people, whose daring enterprise and tremendous arms were so well calculated to strike terror into their enemies. Almeyda therefore, on being introduced to the king of Ceylon, had little difficulty in persuading him to pay an annual tribute to the Portuguese, on condition that they should protect his coasts from all external invasions.

The situation in which Almeyda found the island, was not essentially different from its present state, except in those changes which have been introduced into it by its successive European inmates. The inhabitants consisted of two distinct races of people. The savage Bedas then, as now, occupied the large forests, particularly in the northern parts; the rest of the island was in the possession of the Cingtese. The towns of the sea-coast were not as yet ravished from the latter people by foreign invaders ; and their king held his court at Columbo, which is now the European capital of Ceylon. Cinnamon was even then the principal product and the staple commodity of the island, as we find by the tribute paid by the king to the Portuguese, which consisted of two hundred and fifty thousand pounds weight of cinnamon.

Such are the few circumstances respecting Ceylon, which can be collected from the narratives of its first Portuguese visitors. The minds of these adventurers were too much occupied with the desire of enriching themselves, and aggrandizing their nation, to make any enquiries into the manners of the natives, or the natural history of the country. The rich harvest which the cinnamon of Ceylon presented to commerce, seems to have been the chief object which attracted the attention of Almeyda ; and accordingly we soon find him endeavouring to secure these advantages, by forming a Portuguese settlement on the island. This conduct, as might be expected, roused the jealousy and indignation of the native princes. After a long and bloody struggle, however, the Portuguese succeeded in their object ; and under the conduct of Albuquerque, the successor of Almeyda, the whole sea-coast was reduced under their power, and the natives were driven to the mountains of the interior, of which they still maintain possession.

Albuquerque was an excellent commander, and an accomplished politician ; but he was deeply tinctured with that insatiable thirst of military glory, which distinguished his countrymen in that age ; and dazzled by the glare of extensive conquest, he overlooked the solid advantages to be derived from each of the countries he subdued. Ceylon in particular seemed designed by nature to secure the possessions, and extend the influence of the

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

Portuguese in the Eastern world. Its excellent harbours could afford protection to their ships at all times of the year, while there was no other station on the same coast which could at all periods afford shelter to the vessels of any other European power : the island was naturally so strong that it could be defended by a comparatively small number of troops : and its situation was so centrical, that troops could with the utmost ease and expedition, be sent from it to any part of India. Albuquerque, however, was too much engrossed with extending his conquests over the coasts of India, to pay due attention to these advantages ; and Ceylon, instead of being made the centre and guardian of the Portuguese possessions in India, continued to be cultivated by them chiefly on account of its own natural productions.

The manner in which the Portuguese conducted the government of Ceylon, looked as if it had been their intention to counteract, as much as lay in their power, the advantages conferred on it by nature. Instead of maintaining a friendly intercourse with the natives, and inducing them to assist in promoting the cultivation of the island, every species of insult and barbarity was practised towards them. Not only was any little wealth they possessed seized by the rapacious grasp of avarice : their manners and customs were trampled upon; and their religious opinions, which they could still less give up, were not onty insulted, but even persecuted with the most wanton cruelty. The religious bigotry of the Portuguese completely triumphed over their real interests ; and to this cause in particular may be ascribed the universal hatred entertained against them, and the eagerness with winch

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the native inhabitants of their conquered countries received and assisted their rivals.

As nothing can be more contrary to the spirit of the Christian religion, than the attempt to impose it on mankind by force, so this method lias been uniformly unsuccessful. The Cinglese. looked with horror on strange gods, who seemed to delight in blood ; and chose rather to leave the sea-coasts to their enemies, and find refuge for themselves and their grotesque idols in the mountains of the interior. The Portuguese government was, however, still weak enough to yield to the arguments of the priests, who maintained, that imposing the Christian religion by means of the inquisition, was the only sure method of securing their dominion. These tyrannical invaders therefore pursued the Cinglese to their forests and fastnesses ; and the latter, in their turn, made frequent incursions on the sea-coasts, and often destroyed the richest plantations of the Portuguese. This desultory warfare continued for almost a century with much bloodshed, and no advantage to either party. The internal government of the natives at that time, indeed, enabled the Portuguese to acquire considerable accessions of territory. The jurisdiction of the interior w r as parcelled out among a variety of petty princes, each of whom w r as the sovereign of his particular tribe, or separate valley. It w r as the policy of the Portuguese to stir up animosities between these princes, and to prevent their making a common cause for the deliverance of their country. When any open quarrel broke out between these islanders, their European neighbours were ever ready to lend their assistance to

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

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cither of the parties who desired it. That prince who solicited their alliance was of course successful ; and they had always^ •the prudence to see their own generosity rewarded, by taking possession of the territories of the vanquished prince. By these arts they gradually extended their dominions farther into the interior of the island; and wherever they became masters, their avarice and bigotry prompted them to perpetrate such cruelties, as have ever since rendered the name of European hateful to the ears of a Cinglese.

While the natives of Ceylon were thus daily perishing in fruitless struggles against the regular discipline and concerted plans of the Portuguese, a powerful assistance was oftered them, which promised to put a speedy end to their miseries. No sooner had the Dutch succeeded in throwing oft' the Spanish yoke, than their commercial and enterprising spirit led them to explore every coast of the known world in search of opulence. The inexhaustible riches of the East speedily attracted the adventurous merchants of that nation. In every quarter, however, they found the Portuguese already established ; and the jealousy with which these earlier settlers observed the approach of any rival, soon convinced them that it was only by force they could ever hope to carry their commercial plans into effect. The Dutch and Portuguese were actuated by a different spirit, and proceeded in a very different manner in extending their foreign possessions. The former displayed none of that romantic bravery, that rapid attack, and dazzling success, which so much distin-

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guished the first conquests of the Portuguese in India. But they were possessed of that persevering resolution in the pursuit of an object, which is the soul of commercial enterprise ; and hence we find them, though often repulsed, gradually wresting one settlement after another from the Portuguese ; till at the commencement of the seventeenth century, they had already made themselves masters of the most important islands and settlements, which stretch to the eastward of the straits of Molucca.

The situation and rich productions of Ceylon presented a tempting object to the Hollanders : the extent and strength of the island however, deterred them for some time from hazarding an enterprise of such magnitude. In the year 1603, the Dutch Admiral Spilberg at length ventured to approach the coasts of Ceylon; and the natives, from their hatred of the Portuguese, gave him a very favourable reception. During the constant wars in which they had been engaged, the king of Candy had acquired such a superiority over the other princes, that at the arrival of the Dutch, lie was looked upon as Emperor of Ceylon. To this prince, Spilberg was introduced, and soon conciliated his favour, by declaring himself and his countrymen to be the inveterate foes of the Portuguese. He added, that it was their determinate resolution, to expel these cruel invaders from the possessions which they had so unjustifiably seized ; and concluded with an offer of his countrymen’s assistance to the Ceylonese, in expelling the Portuguese from their island. The king of Candy, as might

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be expected, received this proposal with the utmost joy: “ Tell your countrymen,” said he, “ that if they will only he willing to build a fort in this island, myself, my wife, and my children, will be the first to supply them with the necessary materials.” The Dutch were not long of availing themselves of the advantages which this alliance presented to them. In 16'32, they sent a strong armament to act, in concert with the native prince, against the Portuguese. A violent and bloody struggle ensued : the Portuguese seemed to recover a portion of their ancient spirit, and appeared determined to dispute to the last the possession of a country, which had been so easily conquered by their more warlike ancestors. They were, however, overmatched by the resources and the policy of the Dutch. These persevering and prudent republicans were careful to assist their commanders with continual re-iuforcements, while the Portuguese government in Europe, feebly trusting to the renown of former exploits, left their valuable colonies to their own unassisted efforts. The consequences were inevitable. The Portuguese of Ceylon had no internal resources to trust to. Their commerce was entirely cut off by the fleets of the Dutch: their cruelties had exasperated the natives to such a degree, that it was impossible ever again to conciliate their minds : and this antipathy, joined to the fair promises of the Dutch, and the hopes of a speedy deliverance, had awakened such a spirit among the Ceylonese, that they in their turn attacked their former tyrants even in their own possession^

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and laid waste those plantations from which the only resources of the Portuguese were derived.

The Dutch, however, found Ceylon by no means an easy or a rapid conquest. Every pass, every fortress was disputed with them ; and after the Portuguese had been driven from every other station along the coast, they still seemed determined rather to perish than to yield up Colombo, the seat of their government. The Dutch invested the town, and completely cut off the entrance of all supplies, either by sea or land. The courage of the Portuguese, however, seemed to increase with their difficulties : and for some time they baffled all the attempts of their enemies, and rejected all proposals to surrender with disdain. At length, however, they began to be attacked by enemies, against whom all their valour was in vain. The place was ill provisioned for a siege, and as no supplies could be thrown in, famine and disease began to subdue those brave spirits which had despised death in every other shape. After sustaining a siege of seven months, and after braving innumerable hardships, the Portuguese at length surrendered Colombo to the Dutch, in the year 1656; and thus ended their dominion in Ceylon, exactly a century and a half after the first arrival of their countrymen in that island.

The improvements made in the cultivation of Ceylon by the Portuguese, were by no means considerable. Those people,, when they first took possession of it, were rather warriors than merchants. Their continual wars with the natives contributed

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

to keep up the same spirit ; and their principal attention seems to have been directed to the fortification of a few stations on the coasts, and the erection of some military posts to awe the natives. But the Portuguese appear never to have properly discovered the advantages to be derived from this island, either in a commercial or military point of view. Their dominions extended all around it; and no station could be pointed out more commodious for a depot either of merchandise or military stores. These advantages were overlooked by the Court of Lisbon ; and those individuals who were sent to command at Ceylon were more anxious to gratify their pride by conquest, and their avarice by extortion, than to pursue any plan of permanent advantage either to the mother country or the colony. The Portuguese, therefore, by their own misconduct, were deprived of this valuable island, before they were aware of the benefits to be derived from it.

The joy of the Ceylonese, on being delivered from the yoke of these tyrannical invaders, and their gratitude to their deliverers, at first knew no bounds. The king of Candy willingly paid the expences of their armaments in cinnamon; and conferred upon his new allies the principal possessions, from which he had by their assistance expelled the Portuguese. Among these were the port of Trincomalee, and the fortress of Colombo. The former of these, which lies on the north-east part of the island, is that harbour which renders Ceylon the most valuable station m the Indian ocean. Columbo was built originally by the Portuguese in the south-west of the island, in the heart of tliat tract most celebrated for the production of cinnamon, as the most

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

commodious station for collecting that staple production of the country. Along with this post, the king of Candy also bestowed on the Dutch the towns of Nigumbo and Point de Galle in the same quarter, together with a large tract of rich land adjoining to them.

The Dutch appeared exceedingly grateful to the monarch for all these concessions ; they assumed only the humble appellation of Guardians of Ins coasts ; and they began to fortify the different stations put into their hands, merely, as they said, for his security ; and so well were the Candians convinced of the good intentions of their new allies, that they gave them every assistance in their power to complete their operations. The Dutch took this opportunity to increase the strength of their principal post at Columbo. They greatly enlarged the town; and were at pains to render the fortifications as complete as possible; Their post of Trincomalee, on the other side of the island they also endeavoured to render secure against any attack either from an external or a domestic enemy. Their numbers in the meantime were daily increasing by the addition of fresh adventurers from Europe. The parts assigned to them were the best fitted for cultivation in the island; and they immediately set about turning them to the best account. By means of these prudent measures, and persevering industry, the colony was soon brought into a flourishing state, and was able to depend upon its own internal resources.

W bile the Dutch were thus strengthening themselves, they kept up the most friendly intercourse with the natives; and

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

this conduct, besides enabling them to pursue their plans of improvement without interruption, was also of very considerable benefit to their commerce. The Ceylonese looked upon them without jealousy, and were eager by their good offices to shew their gratitude to the Guardians of their coasts. The Dutch trafficked with them for the natural productions of the island to great advantage: and had they persisted in the same wise and moderate policy, it is probable that Ceylon would in process of time have become as profitable to them from their intercourse with the natives, as if it had been wholly possessed by Dutch settlers.

The ruling passion of the Dutch however, their avarice, soon began to over-reach itself, and by rapaciously seizing upon every opportunity of gain, quickly disgusted and alienated the natives. They began not only to push their posts farther and farther into the interior, and to seize upon every spot which appeared well adapted to cultivation; they also increased their demands on the king for the protection they afforded him; and he soon found that all the cinnamon which grew in his dominions was insufficient to gratify the guardians of his coasts. Enraged at their repeated extortions, he at last fell suddenly upon their settlements, where he committed the greatest devastations. This breach between the Candians and the Dutch was followed by a long course of hostilities, during which much blood was shed, and no lasting advantage gained by either party. The Dutch, however, were the greatest losers by the contest ; for though they frequently routed the natives, over-rail tlieir country, and

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destroyed their villages ; yet the hardships which they encountered in forcing their way through a country covered with wood, and every where full of defiles, destroyed so many of their troops, that all their successes were too dearly purchased ; and in the end, they were always obliged to abandon their conquests with great loss. The incursions of the natives, on the other hand, into their cultivated possessions on the coasts, although momentary, and in general easily repulsed, frequently destroyed the labours of years. These considerations induced several of the Dutch governors to attempt the restoration of tranquillity, rather by conciliating the natives, than by ineffectual struggles with them. For this purpose they sent ambassadors to them, with a variety of rich presents, and with instructions to gratify the Candian king by all those attentions and tokens of respect which have so great an effect on uncivilized minds. Their letters to him were vTapped up in silks embroidered with gold and silver, and their embassador carried them all the way on his head, the highest token of respect known in that country. In these letters, the king was dignified with all those high-sounding titles which are usually conferred upon an eastern monarch ; while the Dutch subscribed themselves his humble and loyal subjects, repeating their former assurances that their only motive for building fortresses was the security of his Majesty’s dominions. These conciliatory measures never failed to have considerable effect; but few of the Dutch governors were either sufficiently enlightened or disinterested to persevere in them. As they were usually men of no education

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and entirely of mercantile habits, they could not extend their views to distant advantages; and if they could accumulate a fortune by acts of extortion on the natives, they little regarded how prejudicial such conduct might prove to the future interests of their country.

The renewed oppressions of the Dutch was the constant signal for the renewal of hostilities between them and the natives. A long course of warfare rendered the Ceylonese both brave and dexterous. The Dutch were frequently repulsed even in close combat; several of their forts were taken; and whenever they attempted to penetrate into the interior parts of the island, they seldom failed to lose large parties of their men in attempting to force the woods and defiles, or by the ambushes with which their vigilant and active enemy every where surrounded them. But European discipline; and Dutch perseverance, frequently surmounted all these difficulties. The king of Candy saw those woods, which lie looked upon as impenetrable barriers, burst through ; and the Dutch soldiers appeared in those vallies, where indeed there were no fortifications, as their native possessors never supposed they could have been approached by a foe. The king was twice driven from his capital of Candy, and forced to seek for refuge in the mountains of Digliggy, the highest and most impenetrable in his kingdom. Here, however, he found himself secure from the pursuit of the enemy, and contented himself with surprising and cutting off their convoys of provisions and stores sent up from the coast, till they should of their own accord abandon

D his dominions. This, after all their victories, Ithey were constantly obliged to do, and with the loss of a great number of their men.

I have often heard persons, unacquainted with the interior of Ceylon, express their surprise that a tract of land in the heart of an island, cut off from all external supplies, and every where surrounded by European settlements, should so long have remained in the hands of a people neither strong nor warlike, in spite of repeated efforts to wrest it from them. I own that this circumstance appeared to. myself very extraordinary, until I had an opportunity of investigating the causes on the spot. The very appearance of the country, however, made me rather wonder that it ever should have been penetrated by an enemy, than that they were unable to retain possession of it. The whole country is high and mountainous ; the approaches are steep, narrow, and scarcely accessible, except by persons on foot. The thick jungles and woods every where obstruct the view; and they are only penetrable by narrow and intricate paths, known but to the natives themselves. Besides the difficulty of clearing a passage through such obstacles, every opportunity is presented to those who know the country, of destroying the assailants without being seen or exposing themselves to the least hazard; and this is the mode of fighting which the native Ceylonese continually practise. They know well that they are unable to cope with the discipline or bravery of Europeans in the open field ; their skill in war therefore consists in posting themselves in proper positions among the