Life in the Mofussil, or, The civilian in Lower Bengal

Chapter I. Acting As Joint Magistrate At Kishnaghur

Nature of Country — Indigo Cultivation — Kishnaghur Station — Mutton Club — Ice Club — Cattle Pounds — Postal System — The Gaol — Caste Difficulties — Amusements — Rajah of Kishnaghur — Monkeys — Snakes I

Chapter II. At Kishnaghur

Rent Suits — Palanquin Dak — A Contretemps with a Clerical Dignitary — Criminal Work — A Brahmin Thief — Native Jury — A Curious Verdict — Bribery — A Confessing Burglar — Famine — Grain Dacoities — Arboriculture — Home on Medical Leave 50

Chapter III. At Dacca

Return to India — Appointed to Hooghly — Promoted to Act as Magistrate and Collector of Dacca — Journey there — Dacca Improvements through Moral Influence — Cutcherries — Take over Charge — The Gaol — No Gate — Area and Divisions of District — Police — A Riot Case — Our House — Hindu Economy — Result — Polo — Munnipoorees — The Local Paper — A Will Case — An Ominous Storm — A Cyclone — Shiahs and Sunnis 82

Chapter IV. At Dacca

The Municipality — A Case of Jealousy — An Impertinent Crow — Troublesome Gaolers — Lunatic Asylum — Ganjah — Cold Weather Tour — Inconvenience Caused in Office Work — Boats — Inspection of a Police Station — A Khairkhah — A Mohammedan Sub-Divisional Magistrate — A Native Nobleman's Hospitality — Some Curious Cases Arising out of Disputes about Land — Pig-Sticking at Toongee — Boar Killed by a Tiger — Excursion to Tipperah — Deaths at Dacca Contents. IV PAGE

Chapter V. At Dacca

Annual Criminal Returns — Judicial Obstructions— An Illustrative Case — Statistics — Settlement Work — Law of Alluvion — Revenue Returns — Income Tax — A Brahmin Convert — Remittances of Silver — Dacca Jungle — A Sporting Expedition in the Rainy Season— Baruni Fair — Sudden Departure from Dacca— Accused of Extortion by Telegram. . . ■ *73

Chapter VI

A T MYMENSINGH. Result of Telegraphic Complaint — Appointed to Mymensingh — Journey there — Mymensingh Station — Statistics — Landholders — Trop de Zile — Visit from Lieutenant-Governor — Social Differences — Cold Weather Duties — Guide Posts — A Capricious Leopard — A Curious Superstition — A Tiger Marked Down — The Rajah of Shushung — Leopards and Dog — Good Qualities of Native Servants on Tour — Comparatively Small Number of Petty Criminal Cases — Serajgunge — Appointed to Howrah 202

Chapter VII

A T HOWRAH.— A T ALIPORE. Howrah — Pay— Girls' Schools — Canning Institute — Appointed to Twenty-four Pergunnahs — Surburban Municipality — Calcutta Slaughter Houses — Suburban Police — A Mysterious Theft Case — Port Canning — Multiform Personality of District Officers — An Unjust Award — A Solicitor Convinced by a Tiger — Charitable Institutions — Lepers — Wards' Estates — Roads — Examinations in Horsemanship — Native Press — Punchannogram — An Animal Worshipper — The Census — Increase of Pay — Trip to the Soonderbuns — Alligators — Saugor Island — Cyclone Waves— Houses of Refuge — Assassination of the Governor-General 237

Chapter I. Acting As Joint Magistrate At Kishnaghur

NATURE OF COUNTRY. — INDIGO CULTIVATION. — KISHNAGHUR STA- TION. — MUTTON CLUB. — ICE CLUB.— CATTLE POUNDS. — POSTAL SYSTEM. — THE JAIL. — CASTE DIFFICULTIES. — AMUSEMENTS. — RAJAH OF KISHNAGHUR.— MONKEYS.— SNAKES. As I drove along the dusty road, I felt a certain sense of freedom in having cast off the official cares of the place, and thought of many things that my successor would find both difficult and laborious to unravel and bring to a satisfactory conclusion, e.g., Bunwarree Lall's case ; but I knew that the man I was about to succeed at Kishnaghur would leave similar worries to me ; so that my lightness of heart would be only temporary. Indeed, my heart was heavy enough on leaving Mozuf ferpore, after a couple of days' stay there, and saying good-bye to all the friends I had made during the last three years.

This is one of the disagreeable phases of Indian official life. We are thrown for two or three years into daily contact (it is only the subdivisional official who lives alone) with the same very limited number of people ; and we get to know each other so well, that the very smallest details of our lives become subjects of mutual interest, when one day there comes an order in the Gazette, and we are torn apart, perhaps never to meet again. VOL II. B Nevertheless, I always retained a most affectionate recol lection of my friendships at this my first station; and I do not think that any formed afterwards under analogous circumstances, took quite such deep root. My journey to Calcutta was very easily performed, as the railway was now open all the way ; and as I flew past the scene of my meal in the platelayer's cottage, and thought of the very slow progress I then made, I was in a frame of mind fully to appreciate the blessings of Western civilization, notwithstanding anything that Mr. Ruskin may say to the contrary.

On leaving, I had disposed of everything except my table and bed linen ; so that a good deal of my time in Calcutta was passed in making purchases in that extra ordinary place, the China Bazaar, where Hindus vie with Chinese in endeavouring to dispose of their wares stored up for European consumers, and where, if you ask for a pot of jam, an effort is made to tempt you with a batch of Indian gauze vests ; and if you demand some netting for mosquito curtains, you will probably be offered a mahogany dining table. This necessarily makes getting one's real wants satisfied rather a long business ; but a couple of days' patience and perseverance in the stifling atmosphere of these narrow lanes enabled me to accomplish this ; and having seen a boat start with a tolerable load to find its way up to Kish naghur by the network of streams with many names, but which are all offshoots of the mighty Ganges, flowing down to the sea by the various routes cut for themselves through the soft alluvial soil, I rested for a couple of days in Calcutta.

Indigo Cultivation. 3 It was somewhat melancholy to find that almost all my former friends had disappeared. All the officials, from the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal downwards, seemed to have been changed, and I was glad to get away to my new appointment. Kishnaghur was much more accessible than Mozufferpore, for I started at 7 a.m. from the Calcutta terminus of the Eastern Bengal Railway, and reached Bug goolah, the station for Kishnaghur, between fifty and sixty miles distant, in three and a half hours. There I found a buggy of the Collector Sahib's waiting my arrival, which was to convey me over the twelve miles of metalled road leading to Kishnaghur, the capital of the Nuddea district. I found myself in a country very different in its features to Tirhoot. The road was a very heavy embankment the whole way.

In some places the water was still lying, though, it was the driest part of the year, viz., the end of May; and it was evident that in the rainy season a good deal of the country through which I drove would be seven teen or eighteen feet under water. To the north of the Nuddea district, of which Kishnaghur is the capital, there is some high land ; but in this part, and the neighbouring district of Jessore, rice is the principal crop, and has the faculty apparently of growing from floating roots and rising as the water rises. When ripe, it is cut by men in boats, and the stalks attain an enormous length. Another important crop is indigo, which is grown, how ever, on a totally different system to that pursued in Tir hoot. In the dry season all the various streams filtering down to the sea are merely silver threads winding among innumerable sandy islands, the soil of which is specially adapted for the growth of indigo.

They are called "churs" in the native tongue, and are sown broadcast, very little labour or expense being necessary for the pre paration of the land. But when the rivers rise, towards the end of May, in consequence of the melting of the snows higher up, the silver threads become mighty streams, and all traces of these islands disappear. It is therefore necessary to get the crop cut and carried before the advent of the inundation ; and in some years this is not possible, as the rivers rise so suddenly that no procurable amount of labour is sufficient for the purpose. Sometimes the crop is not ripe for the sickle when the waters come down ; and in either case the unfortunate planter sees a crop that a respite of a few days, or even hours, would render worth lakhs of rupees, — I have heard of one planter losing £200,000 in one year in this way, — slowly but surely swallowed up before his eyes.

Here also the European capitalist has found it cheaper to get the plant cultivated on the contract system by native agency than by himself directly. Advances were made to the ryot, who contracted to sow a certain area with indigo and bring the produce to the factory. The produce was computed by bundles ; and if he did not bring enough of these to repay the advances, the surplus due was carried forward to his debit for the next season. The ryot class is proverbially improvident, and if cash be offered them, they are willing to accept it without any sort of scrutiny of the conditions accompanying it, since these need not be ful filled for many months. But even supposing the iyot to be careful, honest, and anxious to perform his part of the Forced Contracts. 5 contract, the factory employe's (omlah) did all they could to prevent it.

It was, on the contrary, their object to keep the ryots always in debt to the factory, and this was a thing only too easily done. The ryot took no thought for the morrow, but having received his advance, spent it on pressing necessities. From the moment, however, that he had accepted it he came subject to the supervision of the factory omlah ; in fact, they acquired a sort of authority over him. They could come to measure his land to see if he had sown the right quantity ; in short, could pay him continual visits of inspection on some ground or other, and threaten him with the anger of their employer if not conciliated by a douceur. The advance even would be paid through them, and a goodly proportion of it would remain in their hands. When the crop was cut and brought in bundles to the factory, they could make two bundles count as one only by straining the rope with which their girth was measured ; and an approximately fair measurement was to be obtained only by a further douceur.

The rate paid by the planter was so low as to make it impossible for the ryot to get a profit out of the crop, even if he had been fairly treated. In a bad season the loss was the ryot's, at least a considerable proportion of it ; for the unrepaid advances were carried forward to his debit for the next year. So that the rule was, that a ryot who had once received advances was always in debt to the factory, and that in Nuddea and some of the neighbouring districts a considerable propor tion of the population was in hereditary debt and servitude to indigo. In many cases ryots who were not hampered by the debts of their fathers, and who were unwilling to take advances, were forced to accept them by intimidation and by fraud. It was no uncommon thing for a ryot who refused to enter into a contract to be kidnapped and confined in a factory outbuilding until compliant.

It was frequently useless to complain to the police. The orders given to them, in case of the probability of the occurrence of a riot, were to prevent a breach of the peace, without reference to the rights of parties. They found it possible to do this only by siding with the stronger party, who was always the planter. Doubtless there were hired lattials (clubmen) on both sides ; but the forces of the planter were always better organized and more sure of being paid. Our ad ministration was only in course of formation, our magis terial courts were at long distances apart, and, as a necessary result, might had too good a chance against right. Even had all the planters been scrupulous and ener getic, they could not have prevented some oppression. But many of the proprietors were absentees, spending their large profits luxuriously in England, and their concerns were carried on by managers who had to strain every nerve to meet the demands from home, some of them, the sub ordinate managers, young, inexperienced, and altogether in the hands of the omlah.

It was natural too that the conquering race should behave in a somewhat imperious manner to the conquered ; for, say what we will, and legis late as we may, we cannot make an European think that a native is equal to himself. A ryot, therefore, who refused to receive advances was looked upon as a recalcitrant Proposed New Courts. 7 inferior who must be coerced into obedience. His oil, seed, or other crops already sown were uprooted, his cattle carried off, occasionally himself kidnapped, and cases occurred of whole villages being burnt down. It was difficult to bring these offences home to the actual perpetrators, partly through the inadequacy of our ad ministration (since then largely reinforced and improved), and partly through the little reliance that could be placed on native evidence. The planter himself was seldom present, and generally, probably, would be able to swear truthfully that he knew nothing of the details, even if the case were brought home to his employes, having purposely allowed himself to be kept ignorant of them.

In some in stances, however, the planters themselves were personally criminated. In Baraset it had been determined to create a new sub ordinate magisterial jurisdiction, and the site for the Sub divisional Court buildings had been selected in the neighbourhood of a planter's factory. He sent in a petition to the Government praying for its location elsewhere, and stating that its vicinity to him would probably give rise to a great deal of litigation between him and his indigo ryots, the latter being incited thereto by the band of needy, petti fogging practitioners which always sprang into existence round a criminal Court. He further stated that the records of the nearest existing Court would show that for the last three years there had been no disagreeable litigation be tween him and the ryots on the ground of indigo cultiva tion.

While his petition was under consideration, the magisterial officer who was about to open the new subdivision, and who was inspecting the neighbourhood prior to reporting finally on the site, was on his way to pay a visit to the factory. A little boy ran up to him just before he entered it, and said that two men were at this moment in confinement in one of the outbuildings for refusing to sow indigo. He gave their names, and the Magistrate, proceeding to the place, called them out loudly. They answered. He then sent to the planter, who was in the house, to produce the keys. He did so, and the two men were then released. It appeared that they had been in confinement at this and other places belonging to the same concern for three months, though they had not been otherwise harshly treated. The planter was personally convicted, and finally fined £50.

The punishment appears not too heavy. It seems needless to add that his petition with reference to the site of the new Subdivisional Court was rejected. At length the evils of the system brought about their natural results. About the year 1854 or 1855, the then Judge of Nuddea addressed a letter to the Government of Bengal on the subject of the great oppression to which the cultivators were subjected. The then Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, who generally seemed disposed to act on the principle of quieta non movere, told him that his remarks were not based on sufficient experience, and rather shelved the subject. Somewhat later, however, in the neighbouring district of Baraset, a planter had complained to the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, that the Joint Magistrate of that district was decidedly hostile to the cultivation of indigo, and was not behaving impartially.

He had been Protection of Ryots. 9 called upon for an explanation, and the result of the cor respondence was, that the ryots got to know that it was not the wish of Government that they should sow indigo, but that they were quite indifferent in the matter. Hitherto they had been under the impression that it was their wish. Just after this, about 1859-60, a native Deputy Magis trate issued a circular order to the police within the juris diction oshis subdivision to protect the ryots, even if they had made contracts, against forcible entry by the planter for the purpose of sowing indigo. This was very injudi cious, and appeared to induce the ryots to consider that the Government was absolutely hostile to the cultivation of in digo. They were only too ready to seize upon any pretext for emancipating themselves, and the whole of the indigo districts in the neighbourhood were soon in a state of fer ment.

Thousands of ryots, who had received advances for the season's cultivation, refused to fulfil their contracts. The sowings can only take place for about a couple of months in the early part of the year, and even then only after favourable falls of rain, which are few and far be tween. There was imminent risk that this great trade would be ruined. The Government did its utmost to explain to the cultivators through the local officials, that they were bound to carry out contracts already entered into ; and in order to meet the extreme urgency of the case, hastily passed a Bill through the Legislative Council, to be in force for six months only, giving Magistrates summary jurisdiction to enforce specific performance of existing contracts to sow indigo, and in case of refusal to assess damages payable to the planter, in default, to impose sentences of imprisonment.

Several additional magisterial officers were sent to adjudicate the cases instituted in great numbers by the planters, and hundreds of ryots were sent to prison for refusing to sow. The Nuddea gaol had to be entirely emptied of its ordinary class of criminals to make room for the influx of ryots convicted under this Act. It is probable that many of them would not have been so obsti nate, had they understood that sowing this year would not render them any more liable to sow the next. A commission of inquiry was to be appointed, and to report on the whole case before the next season, as to the necessity of special measures, legislative or otherwise. But it was difficult to convey this clearly to their uneducated minds. In the meantime some very harsh and unjust decisions were passed under the Act by inexperienced Magistrates who had been hurried to the scene of affairs.

There was no appeal to any judicial Court ; but the Government of Ben gal had a power of supervision reserved to it under the law; the Commissioner of the division could send for records of all cases tried, and refer them to the Government, for reversal or otherwise of the orders passed. In one case a Deputy Magistrate had sentenced a ryot to imprisonment for refusal to execute a contract. After the decision the case was sent up for revision, and it appeared that the contract bore date 1856, but was executed on a stamp paper that had been sold by the stamp vendor in 1859, or three years after the alleged execution of the Faults on Both Sides. 11 deed. (I have mentioned before, that all stamp vendors are obliged by law to endorse on each stamp paper the date of sale and the name of the party to whom sold.)

The defendant in this case had denied the execution of the deed, but the Magistrate had not even thought of looking at the date of sale of the stamp. In another case a mookhtyar (attorney) was sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine of £20 for advising certain clients not to sow indigo. The law enacted punish ments for persons preventing ryots sowing indigo by in timidation ; and the Deputy Magistrate had twisted this into meaning that a lawyer could not give his clients advice in such cases. The man was of course released on the case being revised ; and this magisterial officer was sent to an other district, away from indigo associations. But great excitement prevailed ; it was necessary to quarter a number of military police in the districts ; and this state of things lasted until the season for sowing had passed over.

Sometimes the planters' party were to blame, sometimes the other. The ryots were doubtless quite with out scruples, and anxious to evade the performance of what was justly due from them, as well as of that which was oppressive and illegal. Both parties were represented by associations in Calcutta, the " Indigo Planters' " and the "British Indian Association," respectively; and both of these were in constant communication with the Govern ment of Bengal. These communications consisted largely of accusations by both sides against the Magistrates em ployed in the Nuddea district. This I think is tolerably good proof that these officers generally endeavoured to perform their duties impartially. Either Association would receive letters from one of its own party, containing most extraordinary charges of unfairness and bias against a Magistrate, and would forward it without inquiry to the Lieutenant-Governor, making it a peg on which to hang a demand for the Magistrate's instant transfer to some other place.

A perusal of these letters, and the results of the official inquiry made in each case, shows that the letters written by the planters were just as ill-founded and just as gross misrepresentations as those written by the natives or those who acted for them. Throughout it may be asserted that the Bengal Govern ment did its very best to do its duty fairly by both sides in this difficult and delicate crisis. By the time of my arrival the whole matter had settled down, the Commission had sat, and voluminous evidence had been taken. Special legislation had not been considered necessary ; but the result was that some planters had been ruined, and all in this neighbourhood had been more or less impoverished. This was made by them the ground of bitter, but not justifiable, complaints against the Government.

For long years of oppression, large profits had been wrung from the forced and really unremunerated labour of the ryot. The ryot was now emancipated, and those profits were no longer to be made. No doubt the ryot was lazy, deceitful, and without scruple as to evading engagements into which in many cases he had involuntarily entered, but this was not the fault of the Government ; and the reaction was the fault of the one-sided nature of these contracts. Great efforts were made in the planting interest to obtain a per- Arrival at Kishnaghur. 13 manent special law for specific performance of contracts ; but it was considered that the existing regulations were sufficient. The native merchant who gave advances for the growth of oil seeds, jute, or rice had no need for such a law. There were no analogous disturbances in connection with these crops ; and had the indigo crop been equally profitable to the ryot, and had he been free from the oppressions of the factory subordinates, these difficulties would not have occurred.

As I drove along I observed signs that I was in a metropolitan district. Not the least was the fact that the road was metalled. Such a thing did not exist in far-off Tirhoot, except in the towns of Mozufferpore and Durb hungah, and that in the latter I had made myself. But I was struck still more by the existence of two toll bars, things that I had not expected to find. The entrance to the town of Kishnaghur is through an old Hindu gateway, the remains of an old fortification ; and after passing through nearly a mile of narrow bazaar I debouched on the open part forming the European quar ter. Another three-quarters of a mile along a tolerably shady road, past the houses with their large park-like compounds, past the ubiquitous Racket Court, and up a slight undulation, brought me to the residence of the Col lector Magistrate, MacDonald, who had offered me hospitality.

He was absent at office, but his wife received me most kindly ; and here I stayed for six weeks, while secur ing a house for myself and getting it ready for habitation. Macdonald was grateful to me for joining my appointment so soon ; for my predecessor had hurried off on promotion Life in tlie Mofussil. 14 without waiting for my arrival, and had left him with his hands over-full of work. As Joint Magistrate, I was his first lieutenant. The district, — another sign of its being near the capital, — was divided into six subdivisions — the Sudder, or Kishnaghur, Ranaghat, Meherpore, Chooadanga, Bongong, Kooshtea. The area in square miles is 3,408, and the population, at the census taken in 1872, was found to be 1,806,102. The area of Tirhoot is 6,343, and the population 4,389,250 ; and yet at this time it had only one subdivision.

The inhabitants here, however, were no doubt much further advanced in edu cation and civilization, and required a more elaborate administration ; and it must be observed that several of these subdivisional jurisdictions had only recently been created. My salary now was 700 rs. a month, or, at the then rate of exchange, £840 a year. I had charge of the Sudder subdivision, in which the town of Kishnaghur was situate ; and in case of MacDonald's absence I should assume temporary charge of the district. As Kishnaghur had been created a separate subdivision, all petitions involving judicial inquiry on matters arising within the subdivisional jurisdiction were presented to me, and not to the Magistrate. This caused a considerable saving of labour to him ; for in districts where this arrangement had not been made, the Magistrate was obliged to receive and dis tribute for trial all the new institutions in criminal matters, and this occupied a good deal of time.

Again, if any cases of an unusually important nature occurred in any other subdivision, the Magistrate could and did transfer them to my file for trial. Society at Kishnaghur. 15 Further, under the Rent Law, Act X. of 1859, the Col lector generally heard appeals from the decisions of the Deputy Collectors ; but he was by the law able to de legate his powers to a Deputy Collector ; and I being the head Deputy Collector of the district, appeals from other Deputies were frequently made over to me for hearing. This gave me a lot of extra work ; and, in addition, many matters connected with the general administration of the District were made over to me for consideration and report. In short, I found the quantity of work here very great ; but the quality was interesting, and put me through a tolerably good training for the post of Collector-Magis trate of a district.

The station society was not large, but we were not so dependent on each other for our amusements, as our accessibility from Calcutta enabled friends to come to us from thence, and us to make occasional trips to the capital. The Nuddea division, under the control of one Commis sioner, consisted of the three districts of Nuddea, Jessore, and the twenty-four Pergunnahs, and his head-quarters had originally been at Kishnaghur ; but the completion of the railway had altered the existing state of things, and now he resided in Calcutta, which is situated in the twenty-four Pergunnahs. The European officials now at Kishnaghur were the Judge, Tomlinson the Collector, both married ; the Civil Surgeon, the District Superintendent of Police, his As sistant, an Assistant Magistrate, who held the position that I had in Tirhoot, all bachelors ; the Principal of the Kishnaghur College, an assistant Professor, and the Clergyman, — really a member of the German Mission, but who now performed the Church of England Service for us, — these last three were all married and the fathers of marriageable daughters, so that the female society of our station exceeded its usual proportion in India.

The first thing MacDonald did, was to turn over to me, not an official, but a social duty ; viz., the management of the Ice Club. I remonstrated, saying, that if I were not as hard-worked as he, I was at any rate the man in the station who came second in that respect, and it was right that somebody else should undertake this labour for the benefit of the community. "You must do it," he said. " If neither you nor I will, nobody else will ; and you will find wherever you go, that the Collector and the Joint must do all this sort of thing between them, or it is not done at all. I have the Mutton Club, and you must take the other." I acquiesced, and it may, perhaps, be as well to explain the nature of these clubs. In the Mofussil it is not pos sible to buy any eatable meat. Goat's flesh, it is true, is procurable ; but that is not very nice ; so we had to supply our own mutton, and for this purpose it was necessary to keep a flock of sheep, and " kill ourselves," as the saying is among butchers in England.