Three Centuries of Modern History

Front matter

THREE CENTURIES OF MODERN HISTORY. LONDON : PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET EQCARK AND PARLIAMENT STREET THREE CENTURIES OF MODERN HISTORY. BY CHARLES DUKE YONGE, Regius Professor of Modern History and English Literature in Queen's College, Belfast Author of ' A School History of England,' ' Three Centuries of English Literature,' ■Sic. ' L'hisloire print le cceur humain: c'est dans t'histoire qu'il faut chercher les avaniages et les inconvenients des dtjferentes legislations.'— Napoi^on, RGponse -1 l'Adresse du Conseil d'fitat, Corresp. No. 19,390. LONDON : LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 1872.

Chapter I. Page

Plan and object of the work 1 State of Europe at the close of the 15th Century . . 2 Discovery of the Mariner's Compass and of Printing . . 3 ■ Eagerness of French Statesmen for a footing in Italy . 4 Character of Charles VIII. of France .... 4 1494. He invades Italy 5 1495. The League of Venice ....... 6 Charles retreats from Italy ...... 7 Gonsalvo de Cordova lands in Calabria .... 7 The Battle of Seminara 7 The Battle of Fornovo 8 1198. Death of Charles VIII ' . . 8 1499. Louis XII. invades Italy 9 Frederic of Naples submits ...... 9 Gonsalvo takes Taranto . . . . . . . • 10 The Battle of Cerignola 11 1503. Death of Pope Alexander . . ... . . .12 The Battle of the Garigliano . . . . . .13 1508. The League of Cambrai . . . . . . .14 1511. The Holy League 15 1512. The Battle of Ravenna IS 1513. Death of Pope Julius . * 17 1515. Death of Louis XII. . ....... 17 1516. Death of Ferdinand 17 Characters of the two Monarchs . . . . .18

Chapter II

Character and views of Columbus 20 1492. He sails from Spain 22 He reaches the Bahamas ....... 24 And Hayti , 25 1493. Returns to Spain 26 Sails on his Second Voyage ...... 27 1498. In his Third Voyage he reaches Guiana .... 28 His ill-treatment by Bobadilla VI . PAGE 1502. His Fourth Voyage 30 1506. His Death . . . . , '30 1517- Discovery of Yucatan . . . . . . .31 1519. The Expedition of Cortez 33 He reaches Tabasco ........ 33 High Civilization of Mexico ...... 34 Alarm of Montezuma ....... 35 Cortez destroys his Fleet . . . . . . .37 Treachery of Montezuma ....... 38 The Spaniards arrive in sight of Mexico . . . .39 Submission of Montezuma . . . . . . .41 Cortez attacks and defeats Narvaez ..... 42 1520. Uprising of the Mexicans ....... 43 Defeat of the Mexicans ....... 44 1521. Arrival of reinforcements ....... 46 Guatemozin succeeds to the Mexican throne ... 46 He is taken prisoner ........ 47 Wise Administration of Cortez ...... 48 1547. Death of Cortez 49

Chapter III

1515. Francis I. succeeds to the throne of France 51 1516. Charles succeeds to the throne of Spain . . .51 1515. Francis invades Italy ....... 52 Takes Colonna prisoner ....... 53 The Battle of Marignan . 54 1516. The Treaty of Noyon 56 Mutual Jealousies of Francis and Charles .... 57 1519. Death of Maximilian ...... .58 Charles is elected Emperor ...... 59 1520. Francis declares war against the Emperor ... 59 Loyola is wounded at Pampeluna ..... 60 Defence of Mezieres by Bayard .... . . 60 Character of Louisa of Savoy . . . . . .61 Rarity of Loyalty among the French Nation . . .62 1523. Revolt of tbe Constable Bourbon ..... 63 1524. Death of Bayard ........ 63 1525. Francis recovers Milan ....... 64 Pope Clement VII. concludes a Treaty with him . . 65 The Battle of Pavia ......... 66 Francis is taken prisoner . . . . . , .67 1526.

The Treaty of Madrid 68 The Holy League ........ 69 Bourbon takes Milan 69 1527. Death of Bourbon pag ■-; The Sack of Rome . . . . . . , .71 Capture of the Pope . . . , . . . . 72 1544. The Battle of Cerisoles' ! . 73

Chapter IV

Reformers of the Middle Ages — Wickliffe— Huss— Savonarola .......... 74 1513. Death of Pope Julius and Accession of Leo X. . . .75 1517. Luther denounces Indulgences ....... 76 Importance of the Principles involved in the Reformation . 77 Character of Luther . . . . . . . .78 1521. Diet of Worms 79 1526. Diet of Spires 80 Confession of Augsburg ...... 80 Formation of the League of Smalkalde . . .81 1533. Charles grants the Truce of Nuremburg ... 81 Vacillation of Charles and Francis ... 82 1544. The Battle of Cerisoles 82 1546. Death of Luther 82 The Council of Trent 83 Charles commences war against the Protestants . . 83 Maurice of Saxony joins the Emperor ... .84 Irresolution of the Protestant Leaders .... 85 1547. Death of Francis 1 86 The Battle of Muhlberg 87 AiTogance and cruelty of Charles ..... 87 1548.

Charles publishes the Interim ...... 88 1551. Maurice makes alliance with Henry II. of France . 89 1552. They make war upon the Emperor ..... 89 Henry captures Metz and other towns in Lorraine . . 90 Charles flees from Innspruck . . . . 90 The Peace of Passau 91 1553. The Duke of Guise defends Metz 91 1555. Death of Maurice of Saxony 92 Death of Joanna ........ 92 Charles abdicates the Throne 93 His Life at Yuste 94 1558. His Death and Character ....... 95

Chapter V

1558. Success of Philip at the beginning of his Reign ... 98 The Treaty of Chateau Cambresis 98 Character of Philip 99 His zeal for Persecution PAGE Regency of Margaret of Parma . . . . . . 100 Character of Cardinal Granvelle . . . . .101 And of William the Silent 101 Popularity of Charles V. in the Netherlands . . . 103 The Compromise . . . . . . . .103 1566. Les Gueux 104 Tumults at Antwerp 104 William leaves the Netherlands 105 1567. The Duke of Alva is sent to the Netherlands . . . 106 Execution of Egmont and Horn . . . . . .107 1568. Cruelty of the Persecution instituted . .... 108 Beginning of the Revolt of the Netherlands . . .110 The Battle of Jemmingen . . . . . . .110 Philip approves the cruelties practised by Alva . . .111 Alva's Financial Devices . . . . . . .112 1573. He resigns his post 113 1574.

The Provinces renounce their allegiance to Spain . .114 1576. Don John succeeds Requesens as Governor . . * . 114 His Love for Mary of Scotland 115 1577. The Spanish Fury at Antwerp . . . . . .116 The Union of Brussels 117 ] 578. The Perpetual Edict 118 Lukewarmness of Queen Elizabeth -. . . . .119 The Archduke Matthias becomes Governor General . 1 20 The Battle of Gembloux 121 Death of the Dauphin 122

Chapter VI

The Duke of Parma becomes Governor of the Netherlands 123 1579. The Capture of Maestricht 123 The Union of Utrecht 124 1580. An Embassy is sent to the Duke of Anjou . . . . 125 Philip offers a reward for the murder of the Prince of Orange 125 1584. The Prince is murdered . . . . . . .125 Character of William the Silent . . . . . .126 His son Maurice succeeds as Head of the Council . . 127 Henry III. of France is invited to be Protector of the Netherlands . . . . . . . .127 Successes of Parma . . . . . . . .128 The Siege of Antwerp . . . . . . .129 Parma bridges the Scheldt 131 1585. Attack on Boisleduc ....... 131 Gianihelli builds explosion ships . . . . .133 St. Aldegonde pierces one of the Dykes . . , . 1 page Defeat of the Enterprise ....... 135 Surrender of Antwerp ....... 136 1586. Elizabeth aids the Netherlanders 137 1587, Misconduct of the Earl of Leicester . . . . .137 1591.

Parma is removed to France . . . . . .138 1592. Is mortally wounded. ....... 138 Maurice of Orange introduces military reforms . . .138 1597. Defeats Varax 139 1598. Death of Philip II 139 Interference of Barneveld in military matters . . .140 1601. The Siege of Ostend 141 Exchange of Prisoners is introduced ..... 142 1603. The Marquis Ambrose Spinola takes the command . .142 1604. Maurice takes Sluys 143 Spinola takes Ostend. ....... 143 The Netherlanders destroy a Spanish Fleet at Gibraltar . 144 1609. Peace is concluded ........ 145 Character and Consequences of the War .... 145

Chapter VII

The Reformation in France ...... 147 1 525. Views of Francis I. and his Successors .... 147 The Reformers attack the Images 148 Vehemence of Francis I. in persecution . . . .149 1536. Calvin publishes his ' Christian Institution' . . . 149 1544. The Peace of Crepy 151 1540. Francis's Edict against the Vaudois . . . . .151 1545. Persecution of the Vaudois ...... 151 Desolation of the whole district ...... 152 1547. Death of Francis 1 153 Character of Francis 153 1549. The French Parliament refuses to establish the Inquisition 155 The Protestants begin to resist 155 1559. Death of Henry II. 155 Influence of the Guises over Francis II. . . . .156 1560. Death of Francis and Accession of Charles LX. . . . 157 Character of Catharine de Medici 157 Meeting of the States-General 157 1561. Catharine at first favours the Protestants . . . .158 The Conference at Poissy . . . . . . .158 The Duke of Guise makes alliance with Philip of Spain . 158 1562.

The Massacre of Passy 158 1562. Commencement of the Civil Wars 159 1569. The Prince de Cond^ killed 159 Henry of Navarre is adopted by the Huguenots as their leader X page 1572. Marriage of Henry of Navarre ...... 160 The Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . . . .161 The Murder of Coligny 161 The Slaughter in the Provinces . ..... 162 The Pope approves the Massacre . . . . .163 1573. The Duke of Anjou is elected King of Poland . . . 163 1574. Death of Charles IX. and Accession of Henry III. . . 164 Renewal of the War of the League . . . . .165 1587. The Battle of Coutras 165 Death of the Duke of Al encrin . . . . . .165 1589. Assassination of the Duke of Guise . , . . .165 The Siege of Paris .... ... 1 65 Assassination of Henry III. . . . . . .166

Chapter VIII

Character and Difficulties of Henry IV 167 The League proclaims Charles X. . . . . .168 The Battle of Arques 1 62 Queen Elizabeth sends Henry reinforcements . . .169 1590. Story of prodigies seen in the sky . . . . .165 The Battle of Ivry 1 70 Philip sends the Duke of Parma to support Mayenn, . 173 1592. Death of Parma 173 1593. Henry becomes a Roman Catholic . . . . .173 1534. He is crowned at Chartres ...... 173 He enters Paris ........ 174 1595. Mayenne submits . . . . . . . .174 1598. The Peace of Vervins and Edict of Nantes . . .175 Exhaustion of France produced by the late wars . . 176 Sully becomes Minister . . . . . . .176 Three great Finance Ministers of France : Sully, Colbert, Turgot 176 1598- Licentiousness of Henry ....... 177 1610. Energy and financial skill of Sully . . . . .178 Political objects of Henry himself ..... 1"9 He weakens the power of the Nobles .... 179 Biron's Conspiracy ....... 180 1600.

Henry marries Marie de Medici .... 181 Henry's measures for the encouragement of trade . .182 Establishes a Colony in Canada . . . . .182 His plans for humbling the House of Austria . . 182 1601. His Negotiations with Elizabeth .... 182 Different Views of James I. .... 183 He concludes a Treaty with James .... PAGE 1609. He recalls the Jesuits ....... 184 1610. He is murdered by Ravaillac . . . . . .185 Character of Henry 186 Is the first King in Europe to establish a Ministry . . 186

Chapter IX

1526. Ferdinand becomes King of Bohemia .... 188 Zeal of the Bohemians for Independence .... 188 1617. Bigotry of Ferdinand, Archduke of Styria . . . . 189 Riots at Prague ........ 190 1619. Ferdinand becomes Emperor ...... 191 Frederic, Elector-Palatine, is elected King of Bohemia . 191 Beginning of the Thirty Years' War 191 Character of Frederic . . . . . . .192 James of England refuses to support him . . . .192 1620. Spinola overruns the Palatinate 193 Frederic's army is defeated at Prague . . . .193 Ferdinand annuls the liberties of Bohemia . . . 193 Skill of Frederic's general, Count Mansfelfl . . . 194 1623. France and England and the German Protestants . . 194 A Protestant League is formed in the North . . . 194 1626. Wallestein raises an Army for Ferdinand . . . .195 1628. He besieges Stralsund 196 Gustavus Adolphus aids Stralsund . . . . .196 1629.

Ferdinand publishes his Edict of Restitution . . 197 Richelieu sends Father Joseph to mediate between the Kings of Sweden and Poland ..... 197 Ferdinand dismisses Wallestein ..... 198 Military Reforms of Gustavus . . . . . .198 1630. Gustavus invades Germany ...... 199 Gustavus concludes a Treaty with Louis XIII. . . . 200 1631. His rapid successes 200 The Siege and sack of Magdeburg 201 A British division joins Gustavus ..... 202 He defeats Tilly at Breitenfeldt 202 1632. Gustavus defeats Tilly on the Lech and takes Munich . 204 Wallestein resumes the command ..... 205 Gustavus fortifies Nuremburg ...... 205 Gustavus defeats Wallestein at Lutzen ; but is killed . 207 1633. Ferdinand's jealousy of Wallestein 209 1634. He procures his assassination ...... 210 France mingles in the war . . . . . .212 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter X Page

1610. Renewal of intrigues at the French Court . . . .213 Favour of the Concini "™ Sully is dismissed from office 213 1614. Conde revolts: the Peace of St.-Menehould . . . 214 First appearance of Richelieu at the States- General . . 214 He becomes Almoner to the Queen 216 Rise of De Luynes 216 1616. Richelieu becomes Secretary of State 217 1617. Assassination of Marshal d'Ancre ; (Concini) . . .217 The Queen's Mother is banished to Blois . . . .218 1620. Richelieu mediates between the King and Queen . . 219 1621. Richelieu is made a Cardinal 220 1624. Negotiations for the Marriage of the Princess Henrietta Maria with the Prince of Wales 220 1624. Richelieu becomes Chief Minister 220 Revives the Policy of Henry IV 220 Richelieu attacks the Huguenots 222 1621. Huguenot outbreak 222 1623. Treaty of Montpelier 223 1625.

Fresh Insurrection of the Huguenots 223 1626. Peace of Rochelle 223 1627. The Duke of Buckingham comes to the aid of Rochelle . 224 Richelieu besieges Rochelle 224 1628. Distress of the Rochellois 224 Lord Lindsey contrives an Infernal Machine . . . 225 1629. Rochelle surrenders 225 1630. Richelieu is appointed Generalissimo in Piedmont . . 226 The Day of Dupes 227 Richelieu's revenge on his adversaries .... 228 1642. Death of Queen Marie 228 1632. The Duke of Orleans betrays all his friends . . . 229 1 540. Magnificence and rapacity of Richelieu .... 229 1635. Richelieu makes a Treaty of alliance with the German Protestants 230 He declares war against the Empire 230 1636. The Infante invades France and reaches Corbie . . . 231 The First Command of Turenne 231 1642. Richelieu dies. His Character 231 He recommends Mazarin as his Successor .... 233 1638.

Birth of the Dauphin 233 1643. Death of Louis XIII 234 The Battle of Rocroi 235 1645. The Battle of Nordlingen 236 1648. The Battle of Lens 237 The Peace of Westphalia

Chapter XI. Page

1600. Origin of the Establishment of La Paulette . . .238 Encroachments of the Parliament . . . . .239 Character of Mazarin , 239 He abolishes La Paulette 239 Breaking out of La Fronde „ 240 Arrest of Broussel 240 Character of Gondi, afterwards Cardinal de Retz . . 241 The Citizens erect Barricades ...... 242 Conde arrives in Paris ....... 243 His Hostility to Mazarin 243 Beginning of Civil War ....... 244 Singular character of the whole Rebellion .... 245 1649. Effect of the Murder of Charles I. on the Parisians . . 245 The Peace of Ruel 245 Intrigues of de Retz. ....... 246 Arrest of Conde 247 1650. Division of the Fronde into the Old and New . . . 247 Energy of Mademoiselle de Montpensier .... 247 1651. Union of the two Frondes 248 Mazarin releases Conde, and quits France. . . . 248 The young King is detained in Paris by de Retz . . 249 View taken by the French Clergy of their relative duties to the Pope and to their Country .... 249 The Queen offers de Retz the office of Prime Minister. . 250 Conde revives the Civil War 251 Forms alliance with the Spaniards 251 1652.

Seeks the alliance of Cromwell 251 Mazarin returns to France ...... 252 Mademoiselle de Montpensier occupies Orleans . . . 252 The Battle of St. -Antoine 254 Condi jvns the Spaniards in the Netherlands . . . 256 End of the Fronde 256 1 657. Mazarin concludes a Treaty with Cromwell. . . . 257 1658. The Battle of the Dimes 257 1660. Louis marries the Infanta ....... 258 He annexes Orange to France ...... 259 1661. Death and Character of Mazarin 259

Chapter XII

Louis resolves to be his own Prime Minister . . . 261 Character of Louis ........ 263 Abilities of Colbert and Louvois ..... 264 Colbert's financial Policy 265 His patronage of learned men ...... TABIE OF CONTENTS. XIV PAGE 1683. Louis dismisses him. .....■■ 266 Policy of Louvois ........ 267 1671. Vast* numbers of the French Armies 268 1674. The Ravages of the Palatinate 268 1683. The Queen dies 270 Louis marries Madame de Maintenon 271 1691. Lnuvois dies of apoplexy ....... 272 1650. Rise of the Jansenists 272 Pascal's ' Provincial Letters ' ...... 273 1683. Persecution of the Huguenots 27* Louis not however friendly to the Pope . . . .274 Enactment of laws against emigration .... 276 1685. The Dragonnades in the South 275 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes .... 977 Extent of the Emigration ....... 277 Popularity of the Revocation ...... 277 Persecution in the Cevennes ...... 278 Insurrection of the Camisards ...... 279 Extraordinary cruelty of Montrevel ..... 280 1703.

Clement XI. publishes a Crusade against the Camisards . 280 Suppression of the Insurrection by Villars . . .281 Subsequent Career of Cavalier ...... 281 Vitality of Protestantism in France . . . . .281 Prevalence of the persecuting spirit in France. Dubois. St.-Simon 282 Cruelty of the Duke of Berwick 282 Voltaire's denunciation of the persecution .... 283

Chapter XIII

Aggressions of the Turks on the Eastern provinces of the Empire .......... 284 1 524. Capture of Belgrade 284 1526. Solyman defeats Lewis of Hungary at Mohacz . . . 284 1545. Solyman makes alliance with Francis I. and overruns Hungary ......... 285 He captures Rhodes ........ 285 1 569. He attacks Cyprus 286 Pope Pius V. espouses the cause of Venice. . . . 287 1570. Nicosia is taken. ........ 287 1571. Don John is appointed to the command of the Allied Fleet. 238 Famagosta is taken ........ 289 The Battle of Lepanto 289 Superiority of the Spanish equipment and arms. . . 290 Exultation of all Christendom 292 Cervantes is disabled, and writes ' Don Quixote ' . . PAGE Continued hostilities between the Porte and the Empire . 293 1660. The Grand Vizier Kiupriuli invades Hungary . . . 294 Montecuculi is appointed Commander of the Imperial Army 294 Interference of the Aulic Council ..... 295 1663.

Montecuculi receives reinforcements ..... 296 He defeats the Turks at St.-Gothard 297 1664. The Turks solicit peace 299 Reforms in Hungary . . . . . . . . 299 The Revolt of Tekeli 299 1683. The Turks again invade Hungary ..... 300 The Duke of Lorraine is the Imperial Commander-in-chief 300 The Emperor makes a Treaty with Sobieski, King of Poland 300 The Turks are routed under the walls of Vienna . . 301 Ingratitude of Leopold to Sobieski ..... 302 1687. The Duke of Lorraine defeats the Turks at Mohacz . . 302 Great losses of the Turks in different quarters . . , 302 .1695. Mustapha II. invades Hungary. ..... 303 Early Career of Prince Eugene ...... 303 1697, He is appointed Commander-in-chief of the Imperial Armies ......... 304 The Battle of Zenta 306 Ingratitude of the Emperor ...... 306 The Treaty of Carlowitz 306 Gradual decay of the Turkish power ..... 306 1678-

Chapter XIV

1700. Character of the latter years of the reign of Louis XIV. . 307 1678. The arrest of Matthioli, l'Homme au Masque de Fer. . 308 Louis wrests Avignon from the Pope .... 309 1688. He declares war against the Emperor. . . . . 310 The Capture of Philipsburg 310 Duras ravages the Palatinate . . . . . .311 Catinat's successes in Piedmont ..... 312 1611. Luxembourg commands in the Netherlands . . .313 1693. The Battle of Nierwinden 313 1695. Death of Luxembourg ....... 315 Boundless extravagance of Louis . . . . .316 General distress of the country . ..... 316 1697. The Peace of Ryswick 317 Performance of Racine's 'Esther' ..... 317 1698. The Review at Compiegne 318 The Partition Treaty 319 1700. Death of the Prince of Bavaria 321 Charles II. of Spain leaves his Kingdom totheDukeofAnjou. and dies TABLE OF CONTENTS.

FAGJS 1701. Louis acknowledges the Pretender as King of England . 322 1702. William III. of England dies 322 Disasters of France in the War of the Succession . . 322 1711. Death of the Emperor Joseph 1 323 1713. The Peace of Utrecht 323 1700- Louis persecutes the Jansenists and destroys the Convent 1715. of Port-Royal 324 Numerous deaths in his family ...... 324 1715. Death of Louis XIV 325 Character of Louis XIV 326 Literary brilliancy of his reign . ..... 327

Chapter XV

1697. Russia was a party to the Treaty of Carlowitz . . . 330 Russia was known to the English in the reign of Henry VIII. 330 1660. Designs of the Czar Alexis against Turkey. . . . 330 16S2. Accession of Peter to the Throne 331 1689. He imprisons the Princess Sophia ..... 331 He resolves to civilise his subjects ..... 332 He resolves to organise a navy ...... 333 1694. He takes Azov 333 He enters Moscow in triumph ...... 334 1697. Travels to Holland and England 334 He visits Vienna 336 1698. Conspiracy of the Clergy and Strelitzes .... 336 Peter declares himself Head of the Russian Church . .337 He reforms every part of the Empire .... 337 He organises a powerful army ...... 338 1697. Accession of Charles XII. to the throne of Sweden . . 339 Rigour of the Swedish Government ..... 339 1698.

Augustus of Saxony becomes King of Poland . . . 339 1700. Russia and Saxony declare war against Sweden . . . 339 Charles defeats the Duke of Holstein and Augustus . . 340 Peter besieges Narva ....... 340 The Russians are defeated by Charles .... 343 1701. Peter prosecutes his reform and recruits his army . . 343 1702- He raises an efficient fleet. ...... 344 1703. Condition of Poland 344 1704. Charles compels the Diet to depose Augustus . . . 344 Charles the First's friendship is courted by every Sovereign in Europe . . . . . . . . 345 1706. Peter founds St. Petersburg 346 1708. Charles invades Russia ....... 347 Defeats the Russians at Hollosin ..... 348 Peter lays waste the country in his line of march . . PAGE, Charles is joined by Mazeppa ...... 348 Peter defeats Levenhaupt 349 1709. The Battle of Pultava 351 Peter replaces Augustus on his throne .... 352 Charles takes refuge in Bender 352 1715. Charles makes peace with Peter 352 1718. Is killed at Frederickshall 352 The Death of the Czarovitch 353 1725. Death of Peter 355 His Character 355

Chapter XVI

1700. Frederic Margrave of Brandenburgh becomes King of Prussia ......... 357 Origin of his Family 357 Albert of Brandenburgh ....... 358 The Great Elector 359 1688. Policy of Frederic 1 360 Character and Policy of Frederick William I. . . . 361 1725. The Treaty of Hanover 362 1740. Death of Frederic William and Accession of Frederic II. . 364 Death of Charles VI 365 1740. Frederic invades Silesia 366 1741. The Battle of Molwitz 366 Maria Teresa at Presburg ....... 367 1745. The Peace of Dresden 368 Frederic is hailed by his people as the Great . . . 368 1745- Institutes great reforms and improvements at home . . 369 1755 Severity of his Military Code 372 1753. Voltaire's Visit to Berlin 373 1754. Kaunitz becomes Prime Minister of Austria . . . 374 Austria makes alliance with France and Russia . , . 375 1756.

The Seven Years' War 376 1756. Frederic defeats the Saxon Army 376 1757. The Battle of Prague 377 The Battle of Kolin 377 1758. The Battle of Rosbach 379 The Battles of Lissa and Leuthen 380 1759. The Battles of Zorndof, Hochkirch, and Kunersdof . . 381 I76O. Berlin is taken . . .- 382 1761. Death of the Empress of Russia 382 1763. The Peace of Hubertsburg 382 1763-86. Frederic's exertions to repair the ravages of the war . 383 a

Chapter XVII. Page

1715- Weakness of the Reign of Louis XV 384 1774. Character of the Regent, Duke of Orleans. . . . 384 1727- Fleury becomes Prime Minister . ..... 385 1743. Advantages derived from his peaceful policy . . . 387 1730. Louis marries Maria Leczinski ...... 387 1736. Death of the Duke of Berwick 387 1738. Peace of Vienna 388 1737. Henry aids the Genoese to crush the Revolt of Corsica . 389 1743. Fleury dies 389 The Campaigns of Marshal Saxe ..... 390 Profligacies of Louis XV. ....... 390 1746. The Battle of Raucous 391 Great distress of the lower orders ..... 392 1753. Indications of a coming rebellion ..... 392 1750. Infidelity of the scholars of this reign .... 392 Career and character of Voltaire ..... 393 1751. Rousseau and the Encyclopædists ..... 394 Renewal of the Quarrel between the Jesuits and Jansenists 395 1754.

Birth of Louis XVI 396 1755. Renewal of religious Persecutions ..... 396 Cruelty of Richelieu in Languedoe ..... 396 Defeats in Canada and in India . . . . .397 Descents of the British Fleet on the coast . . . . 397 1763. Administration of Machault 398 1771. Factious Conduct and Suppression of the Parliament . 400 Abolition of the Order of Jesuits ..... 401 1774. Death of Louis XV. 401

Chapter XVIII

Influence of Russia in Poland ...... 403 Ancient power and glory of Poland ..... 404 Vices of the Polish Constitution ..... 404 1572. Henry, Duke of Anjou, is elected King of Poland . . 405 1693. Sobieski is elected King ....... 406 1709. Augustus of Saxony is King of Poland .... 407 1763. Death of Augustus II. ....... 407 1762. Catharine II. becomes Empress of Russia . . . 408 Alliance between Russia and Prussia .... 409 1770. Proposal of the Partition of Poland 410 Former plans for that object 410 1772. First Partition 4H 1786. Death of Frederic the Great ! 413 Beneficent wisdom of his later years ..... 414 Previous Career of Souvarof . . . . , ,415 PAGE 1788. He defeats the Turks on the Rimniks .... 416 1790. Siege of Ismail 416 The town is stormed and sacked . . . . .417 1792. The Peace of Jassy 418 1780.

Death of Maria Teresa 418 1790. Death of the Emperor Joseph 418 1791. The Poles reform their Constitution ..... 419 1792. The anti-reformers appeal to Catharine .... 420 The Russians invade Poland ...... 429 1793. Second Partition of Poland 420 The Diet of Grodno 420 Early Career of Kosciusko ...... 421 1794. He raises his standard at Cracow ..... 421 Souvarof takes the command against him .... 422 Storm of Praga, and end of the Insurrection . . . 423 Final Partition of Poland 423 Subsequent History of Poland ...... 424 Causes of the ruin of the nation ..... 424 1817. Death of Kosciusko . 425

Chapter XIX

1774. Character of Louis XVI 426 Character of Marie Antoinette 427 Great difficulties of the Government 428 The Parliament is restored 429 Turgot becomes Finance Minister 429 Great wisdom of his Government 430 1777. His plan of Constitutional Reform 431 He is dismissed . 431 Necker becomes Minister 432 Character of him and of Calonne 432 1778. France concludes a Treaty with the Insurgents in America 433 Character of La Fayette 434 1783. Distress of the Country 434 1787. Demand for the States-General 435 Ministry of Lomenie de Brienne 435 1788. Necker returns to office 435 Necker grants all the demands of the extreme party among the Reformers ....'... 436 Grievances under which the People laboured . . . 437 Moderation of the Nobles 437 1789. Composition of the States-General 437 Ill-feeling of the Lower Classes towards the Nobles . . 438 Character of the Duke of Orleans 438 Jacobin Club.

Robespierre 439 a2 XX PAGE Character and early career of Mirabeau .... 440 Mirabeau offers to support the Government, but is rejected by Necker 442 Mirabeau connects himself with the Duke of Orleans . 442 Louis abolishes the chief abuses . . . . .443 Resemblance of his measure to the Charter of 1814 . . 444 The States-General adopt the name of the National Assembly ......... 445 Destruction of the Bastille 446 Emigration of the Count d'Artois 446 Louis visits Paris ........ 446 Disturbances in the Provinces ...... 447 Abolition of all privileges and exclusive rights . . . 448 Character of Madame Roland ...... 449