Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia; with some account of Corea. ... With illustrations and ... maps

Chapter I

Inner, or Eastern Mongolia. PAGE Boundaries — Surface — Mountains — Rivers — Lakes — Wells — Climate — Government — Population — Nomads and Agriculturists — The Part the Mongols have played in History — Character and History of the Mongols of the Present Day — Chinese Settlers — Productions — Minerals — Fertility of the Soil — Animals — Birds — Cities and Towns — Je-hol — Do-la-nor or Lama-miau — Hada (Chi-feng-hien) — Ho-shui-tan — Pa-kow — Monasteries — Education — Religion — Greek Church in Mongolia 1

Chapter II

Southern Manchuria. Definition of Manchuria -Southern Manchuria — Three Visits — Aspect of the Plain and Hills — Fertility of Hill Country — Variations of Temperature — Resemblance of Flora to that of England — Fauna — Peculiar Species of Lark — Hot Springs — The Great Highways — Neglected Roads — Chief Cities — Trading Towns — Seaports — Villages and Hamlets — Chinese Colonization — Agricultural Produce — Coal and Peat — Iron, Gold, and Silver — Manchuria and Canada compared — Development of the Country '2'2

Chapter III

Kirin, or Central Manchuria. Boundaries of Province — Mountains and Rivers — Climate — General Aspect of Country — Character of Inhabitants — Manchus — Chief Towns— Cereals— Opium, Indigo, and Tobacco— Coal and other Minerals — Animals, Wild and Domestic — Birds and CONTENTS. IV PAGB Fisbes — Flora — Northern Manchuria — Whale and Seal Fishery — Port May — Russian Advances 52

Chapter IV

Mr. Meadows on the History of the Manchus. Origin of the Mongols — The History of the Manchus — Manchuria Proper — Contrasts between the Mongols and the Manchus — Comparison between the Latter and the Red Men of New- England and Canada — How governed — Their Customs and Habits — History of the Ketans — The Mongols conquer Manchuria — The present Line of Manchu Whang-tis — Novurh-hochih— The Chief City of his State— The Chahars— Prince San-ko-lin-sin 76

Chapter V

Journey from Peking through Inner Mongolia via Je-hol, Lama-miau, and Kal-gan. Swine — A Devotee — Camels — The Great Wall — A New Temple — The Emperor's Grounds — A Squeeze — Mongolian Temples and Priests — How the Emperor kills a Lion — Hooded Hawks — Rural Life in Mongolia 9i

Chapter VI

Journey through Inner Mongolia — continued. A Magnificent Watershed — A Strange Bridge — A Meeting-place for Chinese and Mongols — Service in a Mongolian Temple — Curious Church Music — Praying-Machines — Homewards — Characteristics of the Mongolian Steppes — Tent Life — Mongolian Butter — Various Mongol Tribes — We Procure an Outfit — Rough Travelling— Queer Beds — Reminiscences of Home — A Beautiful Sight — An Abominable Cavern 106

Chapter VII

Journey through Inner Mongolia — continued. Mongolian Moors — A Temple converted into a Dairy — A Magnificent View— The Great Wall of China— Sunrise on the Borders of China— A Morning Prayer— The Flail in China CONTENTS. V TAGE Cave-Houses — A Good Place for a Mongol Mission — Terrible Police Stations — An Imperial Summer Residence — The Native Names of China — Contrasts between China and Mongolia — A Bad Road — Coal-pits — A Land Pilot — The Great Inner Wall — A Gloomy Pass— Once More at Peking 118

Chapter VIII

Journey from Che-foo to Peking via New-chwang Embarkation — Chinese Boatmen — New-chwang and its Port — Disappointment at Ferry — Dreadful Roads — Misery caused by Rebels — Corean Embassy — Romanists everywhere — Bad Roads again — Chinese Canoes — An interminable Regiment— King-chow — Rapid Sales of Books — Innkeepers' Manners — Chinese Signals and Telegraphy — A Carter decamps — Arrangement of the Difficulty — Books not sold on Sunday — Strange City of Shan-hai-kwan — Glimpse of the Great Wall — Imperial Army — Lawless Soldiery — Yoong-ping-foo — Approach to Peking — Perils by the Way— Arrival at Peking 129

Chapter IX

Journeys through Southern and South-Eastern Manchuria. Anticipations — Stolen or Strayed ! — A Colporteur — We meet with Old Friends at Hai-chow — Volcanic Hills — Fashionable Head-dresses — Hot Baths — Manchurian Horse-dealers — Pigs, four-footed and biped — A peculiar Pagoda — Strange Pots and Kettles — Firmness — Nearly Tricked — The Capital of Manchuria — We slightly lose our Temper — New-chwang, dead within and alive without — Echoes of Home — A Picturesque Ravine — Abusive Boys — A Blank Day — More Cart Difficulties — Gold-Diggings — Ta-chang-ho — Ta-ku-shan — Silk District — An old Manchu City — Highland Scenery — Coreans — Curious Ponies — Fung-whang-chung — Magnificent Scenery — Home 149

Chapter X

Journey through the North-Western Portion of Southern Manchuria, Eastern Mongolia, and Central and North ern Manchueia. A Bad Beginning — Sad Intelligence — Pleasant Signs of Spring — Abundance of Iron-stone — A Melancholy Contrast — Imperial CONTENTS. VI PAGE Burying-grounds-A Comfortable • Funeral Procession-An Insignificant Gate-We stand on Mongol Territory-Character of its People-A renowned Mongol Prince-Mai-mai-kiai- Kwan-chung-tsze, a large Mongolian Market Town 189

CHAPTER XL

Journey through Northern Manchuria, &c— continued. A dismal Spectacle-Scotch Scenery in Mongolia-Men in Authority—A crafty Innkeeper foiled— Cheap Land— The Chinese Lark— We pass the Limits of Cultivation— A Mongol Graveyard—A Royal Messenger— Unappreciated Gifts— A Prince in Debt to an Innkeeper— A Curious Superstition— Something about Lamas— Education in Mongolia — Mongolian Prairie Ground— A Ferry without Ferrymen— Unexpected Lapwings —Uncouth Officials— A Change for the Better— Wooden Walls versus Stone 199

Chapter XII

Journey through Northern Manchuria, &c. — continued. Off again — The Opium Question once more — A Link between Canada and Mongolia — A Curious Tract of Country — Something complimentary about a Goose — Something uncomplimentary about Mules — Remarkable Civility — Distilleries and Piggeries — A travelled Mandarin — Long Streets — A Fertile Soil — Business rather too Good — Chinese Primroses — Fine Forest Scenery — A Desolate Journey — In Difficulties — A Colporteur in an Awkward Position — A Disappointment — We feel our Way — More Troubles — Civil Farmers — A New Household Custom — Hush-a-by, Baby ! — Trout and Rooks, and other Old Home Friends— A Familiar Farmyard Scene — The Goitre in China — A Liberal Mandarin — We Fall under Suspicion — The Last Town in Chinese Territory — The Fishskin Tartars 210

Chapter XIII

Journey through Northern Manchuria, &c. — continued. Chinese Civilization creeping onwards — More Signs of bounteous Spring — No Sheep, but yet a Wolf — The Cry of the Cuckoo — CONTENTS. VII PAGE 239 We lay in a Store of Venison — Cool Boatmen— Ornithological — An artful Pheasant — A rising Town— Home from the Wars — A convenient Stove — A peculiar Method of building Houses— Curious Chimneys — A Wretched Gate— The Scotch Thistle and Mohammedan Families— A fallen City— Old Trees rare in China — An interrupted Book-sale — Bibliopoles be ware ! — Unquiet Times — An inhospitable City — A bad Road but good Scenery — Home from the Wars — Forsaken Cities — A warm Reception — A dishonest Soldier — The Capital of Eastern Mongolia 224

Chapter XIV

Journey through Shan-tung and Keang-su to Nankin and Shanghai. Innkeepers — Saw-Teeth Mountains — Terraced Hills — Mill-stone Quarries — Civil Landlord — Gold-Streams— Kin-kia-kow — Tsi-mi — Exports of Neu-kow — Donkey-flesh — Civil Reception — European Dinner — Wheelbarrows with Sails — Gothic Cathedral — Villages of One Trade — Ascent of the Sacred Hill — Its Temples and Altars — Bewildering Scenery — City of Confucius — Visit to Duke Koong — Genealogical Tree — City and Tomb of Mencius — The Lah-shoo Tree — Boat-hiring — Various Modes of Fishing — Effects of Civil War — Two Camps — Native Gunboats — Insolence of Boatmen — Religious Fair and Pageants — Tsing-kiang-pu — Whai-ngan-foo — A City of Fields

Chapter XV

Corea. Sources of Information— Boundaries and Area — Mountains — Rivers— Coasts and Harbours — Climate — Connection with China — Character of the Natives— History — Independent Tribes— Corean Habitations — Treatment of Boys' Hair — Peculiarities of Costume — Money— Mechanical Ingenuity — Language — Minerals — Cereals and Fruits — Cotton, Silk, and paper — Medicines — Varieties of Wood — Animals, Domestic and Wild —Restricted Commerce and Smuggling— Advantages of Opening the Country to Foreign Intercourse CONTENTS. VIII

Chapter XVI

Peking. By the Rev. Joseph Edkins, B.A., London University. PAGE Peking and Geom.incy — The Rivers round Peking — Imperial Devotions — The Purple Forbidden City — The Varied Fortunes of Peking — Chinese Thieves — The Emperor's Palace — Religious Ceremonies — Temple of Emperors and Kings — Lama Monasteries — Imperial Monuments — Temples and Public Buildings — Sacrifices and Altars — Catholic and Protestant Missions — Embassies — Schools — Catholic Cemeteries — The Summer Palace— The Altar of the Sun— Ming Tombs— The Great Wall 313

Appendix

A. Journey of Mr. Oxenham from Peking to Hankow, through Central Chih-li, Honan, and the Han River 393 List of Towns passed by Mr. E. C. Oxenham on his Journey from Peking to Hankow 425 List of Places on the Banks of the Han River passed by Mr. E. C. Oxenham 427

APPENDIX.

B. Chai-tang Coals 428 An Account of Coal in the Kaiping District of Country between the Lan-ho and the Peh-tang-ho 432 Coal in Honan 436

APPENDIX.

C. Agricultural Observations for Che-foo and Neighbourhood, or the Northern Portion of Shan-tung, made in 1868 : 437

APPENDIX.

D. List of Plants from Shan-tung, collected by the Rev. A. Williamson, 1869 "439 List of Plants collected in North China and Manchuria by the Rev. Alexander Williamson JOURNEYS IN NORTH CHINA, MANCHURIA, AND EASTERN MONGOLIA.

Chapter I. Inner, Or Eastern Mongolia

Boundaries— Surface— Mountains— Rivers— Lakes— Wells— Climate- Government — Population — Nomads and Agriculturists — The Part the Mongols have played in History — Character and History of the Mongols of the present Day — Chinese Settlers — Productions — Minerals — Fertility of the Soil — Animals — Birds — Cities and Towns — Je-hol — Do-la-nor or Lama-miau — Hada (Chi-feng-hien) — Ho-shui-tan — Pa-kow — Monasteries — Education — Religion — Greek Church in Mongolia. I have made two journeys through this country, tra versing the most important districts within its limits. The first journey was from Peking to Je-hol (also spelt Zeh-hol), thence to Do-la-nor, — Sinice Lama-miau, — and home, via Kal-gan. The second journey was from Mouk-den, entering Mongolia by the Fa-kwo-mun gate, A vol. ii. thence in a north-westerly direction as far as a point opposite Petuna, on the north-east bank of the Soongari in Manchuria.

Referring readers to my Journeys for particulars, I here subjoin some general observations. Eastern Mongolia is bounded on the east by Man churia ; on the south by Chih-li and Shan-si ; on the west by Trans-baikal, or the country of the Kalkas tribes; and on the north by the Amoor. It thus embraces an area of, say, 240,000 square miles. By far the greater portion of the country consists of an elevated plateau, relieved here and there by undulations of greater or lesser extent, with abrupt dips and as abrupt rises, and occasionally a low range of hills. The remainder of the country, especially the portions in the centre and the south-eastern districts, are extremely mountainous. The mountains have the same general direction as in China Proper, and much the same features ; the columnar tops, indicating limestone, are especially interesting in the neighbourhood of Pa-kow, south-east of Je-hol.

Many of the valleys are of great extent and exceedingly fertile. The chief river is the Liau-ho, which rises among the hills on the north of the Great Wall, flows first nearly due north, then N. by E., then E. by S., into Manchuria, discharging its waters into the Gulf of Liau-tung. It receives a good many tributaries, especially in the first part of its course. Somewhere in lat. 43° 30' it unites with another great river, called the Sira-muren, which name it assumes, and retains till it reaches Manchuria RIVERS. — LAKES. 3 when it takes the name Liau-ho. Till it receives the Hersu river from Central Manchuria, it is a slow, shallow stream ; but from that point it is navigable for boats and small junks. Several rivers of greater or lesser volume rise between N. lat. 46° and 48° ; some flowing N.W. and joining the Amoor, and others flowing S.E. and joining the Nonni.

One speciality deserves notice in connection with these streams ; not a few of them rise among the hills and more elevated undulations, and after a definite course pour their waters into inland lakes which have no outlet. A glance at the map will show the locality of such better than any description in words. These things prove that Inner Mongolia is much better watered than many have imagined. The largest lake is that called Gou-lou-omo, lat. 49°, long. 116° 30' ; the next Fou-your-omo, lat. 48°, long. 112°. These are connected by slow streamlets with each other and the Amoor. The inland lakes which have no outlet are scattered throughout the country, and are of varying sizes. The largest are Tal-nor-omo, lat. 44°, long. 115° 30' ; Do-la-nor, lat. 42° 20' ; Cha-han-omo, lat. 45°, long, 123° ; and Tap-sou-ton-omo, lat. 44° 15', long. 119° 40'.

Wells are easily obtained in most parts by sinking. Springs are not uncommon, sometimes oozing out from the side of some elevated ridge, forming good natural watering-places, and at other times issuing from a number of different points, and all running toge ther into a low locality and forming large swamps — a blessing to the nomads and their flocks and herds, and the wild ducks and geese; but sometimes a very un pleasant obstruction in the way of a traveller: some of these swamps are of considerable extent. Small streamlets rise here and there and flow languidly along towards the great arteries of the country, or towards some of the inland lakes. Owing to the situation and character of the country the extremes of climate prevail. The latitudes being comparatively low, the rays of the sun are direct and powerful in summer, while the wide sweep of level land presents a vast area of radiation, and so the cold of winter comes quickly and bitterly.

Another cause of the extreme cold is the great elevation of the plateau, which, for the most part, lies several thousand feet above the plains of China. It is winter in Mongolia while the flowers are all in bloom down below on the edge of the plain in " the flowery land." Some have said that there are only two seasons in Mongolia, summer and winter ; but this is scarcely correct. Spring begins later, and is contracted into very narrow dimensions : yet still there is a month and a half which may be called spring ; two months and a half of summer, and one of autumn. Winter generally commences with a tremendous storm, and afterwards retires again for a little— perhaps retires twice — and then comes in earnest and rules with an iron sceptre. Here, as elsewhere in Mongolia, cultivation makes a perceptible difference in a few years' time.

Boreas yields to Ceres: for it has been observed that the warmth increases and the seasons lengthen as cultiva- CLIMATE.— POPULATION. tion advances. And it has been found by the Chinese, who have entered Mongolia as agriculturists, that crops which at first did not thrive, owing to the cold, after a few years yield an excellent return. The inhabitants of Inner Mongolia are divided into forty-nine families, or clans, called " banners," owing to their having each a distinguishing flag and a separate chieftain, who is called a " Wang," or prince. These princes are descended from Genghis Khan, and their dignity is hereditary. They all own allegiance to the Emperor of China, who invests them with their rank. and this inferiority is acknowledged by stated visits, at longer or shorter intervals, — depending upon the dis tance from Peking, — on the part of the several princes ; who, on such occasions, bring, as a tribute to the Emperor, sheep, wine, silk, or other produce of their country.

They appear to be very loyal to the present dynasty ; for, though not compelled to provide him with soldiers or money, large numbers join his armies, and many of his best generals are Mongols. San ko-ling-sin, now so famous in China as the general who tried to prevent the march of foreign troops on Peking, was a Mongol ; and his son, Prince Po, was of great service in putting down the late rebellion in Man churia. According to Mr. Edkins, the average number of men, women, and children in a "banner" is said to be about 200,000, which gives a population of about 10,000,000 to Eastern Mongolia ; and I should say that this is not far from the truth. These "banners" have defined boundaries, and although we have not been able to lay them clown with anything like precision, yet a glance at the map will give the reader a general idea of the locality of several tribes or sections.

We have travelled over a considerable portion of the territory of the Prince of the Har-chin Banner, which commences at the Great Wall at Ku-pei-kow, and extends far beyond Je-hol ; and also through the country of Prince Po just referred to, as well as the country of the Gorlos tribes. We found the people invariably quiet, civil, and attentive to what we had to say. The Mongols may be divided into two classes, the nomadic and the agricultural. The former occupy the western and northern portion of this division of Mon golia, and the latter the eastern and southern. The nomadic Mongols retain all the habits and peculiarities which have distinguished such people from the very earliest times. Tbey never build substantial houses, but live in tents. The tent is a circular frame, covered some times with felt, sometimes with hides ; one door facing the south, and a hole in the centre of the top kept open by a hook for the smoke to escape by, are the only apertures.

Rude boxes, standing around the tent inside, form the depository for their clothes and valuables, and are also their seats and their beds. They live in com panies, selecting places where there is good pasturage and water in summer, and the shelter of a hill in winter. Should drought occur or the pasturage fail, or any other unpropitious circumstance happen, they immediately NOMAD MONGOLS. pack up, and move off. Hence, when travelling through the plains, you often come upon the debris of encampments. The men employed in the vast prairies herding their flocks, are always on horseback ; now dashing off after some stray animal with the speed of a racer ; then quietly musing, or singing some of their songs recording the deeds of their fathers; anon, crying to the cattle, or driving hundreds with marvellous dexterity to some fresh pasture-ground, making them fly before them, and wielding their long poles, like wild men, which they really are.

The women remain in the tents, busy with household duties, preparing food, making butter and cheese ; but often, in an emergency, such as a sudden storm, they will mount a horse and start off to help their lords. The children play about the tents, and the elder ones are employed in the fields gathering argols, which are dried cow and camel dung, for fuel. When a stranger visits them, the children fly in terror to their tents ; but on making your wants duly known, then is enacted before you the scene of patriarchal hospitality, so beautifully depicted in Genesis, chap, xviii. 6-8. "And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, 'Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth.' And Abraham ran unto the herd, and fetched a calf tender and good, and gave it unto a young man ; and he hasted to dress it.

And he took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them ; and he stood by them under the tree ; and they did eat." Substitute a sheep for a calf, and the description is perfect ; the laou-bing, or broad wheaten scone, and the butter and the milk, are the same. The animal is roasted on a rude fire ; neither table nor forks are provided for the guests, but a large piece is handed to you, with a huge knife to cut the meat from the bones, and you convey it to your mouth with your hands. The agricultural people are somewhat different ; they form villages and have houses, sometimes circular like their tents, but more frequently square like the Chinese. These houses are generally built of mud, or mud-bricks, and covered with thatch. They have the heated brick "kang," orbed-place, felt mats, tables, chairs, dishes, chop-sticks, &c. ; and their houses are all full of Chinese pictures of idols, and charms to ward off evils.

Their farming implements are of the same character with those of their neighbours the Chinese, but much ruder ; the plough is just a combination of sticks with a rude iron share. Their carts are extremely uncouth, with solid wooden wheels, seldom circular, a wooden axle not quite straight, trams and sides rough and uneven ; it is a wonder how such vehicles get along, yet they are constantly used. And when you meet these carts laden with old women on their way to or from the temples, as I have sometimes done, it is ludicrous to see these old, ill-clad, non-intelligent, wrinkled, grey haired, dried-up specimens of female humanity, rocked from one side to the other, now holding on here, now AGRICULTURAL MONGOLS. 9 there, with their sons at their side driving their team. For though the young women are fair, active, and comely, yet when they pass into years, having no mental culture, no good hope of a future to cheer them, they become — as do Chinese old women — the most uncomely of human beings.

Another mark of the improved civilization of the agricultural Mongols is, that they place their dead in coffins and bury them in graveyards set apart for the dead, with mounds, and often head-pieces over them, as the Chinese do ; thus distinguishing themselves from the nomads in the west, who still expose their dead in the plains, to be devoured by vultures and wild beasts. Though called agricultural Mongols they do not cultivate the ground to any large extent, or for the purpose of trading with its products ; but only, it would seem, to serve their own household wants : they still depend greatly upon their cattle. Horsemen on fiery steeds may be seen in these districts as in the others, flying across the plains from one point to another, recalling stragglers, or chasing their herds to other pastures.

Large herds of cattle everywhere abound, and milk and butter; and fresh, blooming women, with all the characteristics of our country-maids at home, cheer the weary traveller whose eye has been for a long time repelled by the small feet and odious artificiality of the Chinese women. One feature of rural scenery is very common in Southern Mongolia, viz. large flocks of goats on the hill-sides, far up in all directions, perched upon the obtruding rocks. The herdsmen use a veritable crook, with a curious bend in the end for a stone, which they sling and throw to frighten refractory goats from going where they should not, and to bring them home from places which their keeper could never reach. They live a more settled life than the other Mon gols, and seldom migrate, in the true sense of the term ; although the love of roving clearly still possesses them.

They shave the head and wear the queue, as their fathers did centuries before the Chinese had been forced by their conquerors to adopt this style of wearing the hair. Their clothes resemble their neighbours' in the " flowery land," and are generally of cotton or coarse silk; the furniture of their houses, also, is much the same as that of the Chinese. The Mongol race is extremely ramified and extensive ; reaching from the Danube in Europe to Manchuria in Asia, or rather to the Yellow Sea ; for the Manchus are undoubtedly an offshoot of the same great stock. With many variations in dialect, which are inevitable in the circumstances, the language of the Mongols is one, and the written language is intelligible to scholars among them throughout the whole of that vast extent of country. The Mongols have played a most extraordinary part in the history of the world.

They have formed, as it were, the raw material of our race, whence the blood, sinew, and spirit have been replenished ; refreshing human nature just as the cold bracing winds of their PART PLAYED IN HISTORY BY THE MONGOLS. 11 northern plateau reinvigorate our frames. Restless, ambitious, and conscious of their own prowess, they have been constantly sending off hordes in all directions ; first laying waste the country and making great havoc of mankind, and then mixing with the plundered races and introducing elements of new vigour and new history. Witness the ravages the Goths made on Greece in her latter days, during the reign of Claudius the Second; the awful desolations perpetrated by Attila, " the terror of man and the scourge of God," as he delighted to call himself, who carried his armies to the confines of Paris.

Witness also the conquests of Genghis Khan (a.d. 1194), who overran the greater part of China and subdued nearly the whole of North Asia ; and the ravages and desolations of his successors, especially Timor, or Tamerlane as he is often called (a.d. 1295), who nearly rivalled Attila in the extent of his kingdom, and more than surpassed him in his barbarity ; who carried his arms into Persia and Delhi, and drove the Indians on to the Ganges, and also destroyed Astrakan and the power of the Ottoman. This man confirmed the conquest of China commenced by his grandfather Shih-tsu, and established the famous Yuen dynasty, which ruled over China from a.d. 1280 to a.d. 1368. All through the course of their history the Mongols were perpetually making inroads on the rich country of China, and carrying off great quantities of plunder and women, insomuch that the Northern Chinese now so closely resemble the Mongols in a physical point of view, that it is extremely difficult often to distinguish the one from the other.

The Mongols of the present day possess the same peculiarities of character. Free from the restraints of town and the conventionalities of society, living a roving life, having plenty of good food, fresh air, and perfect liberty to go where they choose on the vast prairies, we might anticipate that they would have well-developed frames, and that the most prominent features in their character would be activity of body, love of liberty, bravery, geniality, impulsiveness, and-changeableness; going from the extreme of frolicksomeness to melancholy at one unexpected leap, and, seeing few new faces, glad to welcome friendly strangers. And such expectations are borne out by intercourse with the people. They are, for the most part, strong, able-bodied, well-made men, about the average height, with black hair, faces flatter than Europeans, and their senses keenly developed.

They are whiter than the Southern Chinese, and of a much more unsuspicious and friendly character : in fact, they are simply grown-up children. Eating animal food abundantly, consuming milk, butter, and cheese, and by no means sparing in the use of a strong whisky, which they either distil themselves or obtain by barter, they are generally full-blooded, with red faces ; many of them like our brewers' draymen at home. Inapt at trade and simple-minded, the Chinese find them an easy prey, and in bartering transactions deceive the Mongols most cruelly. Of late years, however, there appears to- CHINESE SETTLERS. 13 be less of this roguery. Through the teaching of experience, a middle class has sprung up between the tricky Chinaman and the raw Mongols, who live far away, and only occasionally visit the emporiums of trade on the edge of China.

These men now understand the lying and fraud of the Celestials, and prove quite a match for them. It cannot be denied, however, that sometimes their middlemen prove as hurtful to the simple Mongols as the members of the alien race. For some time back Chinamen from Shan-si, Chih-li, and Shan-tung have been creeping into Mongolia and settling there. They have obtained possession of many tracts of fine land, and now prosecute farming operations with great success. At first, as I have mentioned elsewhere, they could not make much of it, the soil and climate being so different from that which theyMiad. been accustomed to ; but now they get on vigorously. Fresh men are pouring in ; they are every year occupying more land, and are likely to prove a most im portant element in the industry of Mongolia.

They pay a certain rent to the chief of the territory where their land lies, and also a tax to the Emperor. The Mongol princes find it to their advantage to encourage these im migrants in every way. The great plains are mostly in a state of nature, producing only prairie grass, which they yield in great abundance. The mountain districts are very different : the valleys, being in many instances well cultivated, yield oats, potatoes, barley, &c, and in the more southerly parts, millet, Indian corn, and anything that will grow in North China. In the neighbour hood of Pa-kow and other places, they have the mulberry tree, and produce a good deal of fine silk, as I shall mention further on. Indigo and the poppy are reared extensively in many localities, especially in the east. Minerals are found in various places, far removed from one another, indicating a very general diffusion.