A Short History of Rome to the death of Augustus ... With four maps

Preface

My excuse for adding another to the large number of school books already existing, is that at present no satisfactory small Roman history exists in England ; that this is so most schoolmasters will agree. My aim has been, as far as possible, to keep out unimportant details, and to lay stress on the broad principles which make the interest of Roman history. I hope that these will not be found too difficult for schoolboys in fourth and fifth forms, for whom the book is primarily meant. It may also be useful in the highest forms, when preparing for an examination on the outlines of Roman history, and in pass examina tions at the universities. There are three points to which I wish especially to refer. First, the chapter on the mythical history is scanty to baldness : this was inevitable, for while it could not be omitted, it was impossible to treat this part of the subject fully, in the archaic style which is most suitable to it, without giving it too much space.

The second point is more practically important. In chapters xi. and xii. the constitutional developments of the third and second centuries have been described by anticipation : this seemed the best course, as the

PREFACE.

VI changes after 287 B.C. were mainly unconscious, and grew naturally out of the arrangements of the 4th century. In form teaching, these chapters might be passed over rapidly at first, and revised carefully after chapter xxv. had been reached. Thirdly, I have tried to make a special feature of historical parallels. Almost all of these come from Greek or English history, which most schools read, at least in outline, before they begin that of Rome. To a boy with a taste for history, these parallels will be interesting and useful ; the ordinary boy need not be troubled with questions on them. As far as possible all quotations and technical terms, when first used, have been printed in italics ; but in this matter, and in the arrangement of Roman proper names in the Index, consistency has been sometimes sacrificed to convenience.

For a considerable part of the history I can claim some knowledge of the original authorities ; in other parts Mommsen's and Ihne's histories, and the hand books of Professor Pelham and Mr. Shuckburgh, have been especially used. If I have borrowed unduly without acknowledgment, I must apologize, and here express my obligations once for all. Kiepert's Atlas has been followed in the spelling of geographical names, and Mommsen (last edition) for all others. To the latter writer I owe a large part of my interest in Roman history ; and if I seem some times presumptuously to differ from the greatest of living historians, my excuse is that Mommsen is in clined to overrule the testimony of the ancient

PREFACE.

VII authorities for his own theories. As a rule, in these cases his view has been given in a footnote, for the benefit of examinees, who may well think it the safer to follow. For dates I have used Fischer's Zeittafeln, a book sadly needing a new edition. I am under obligation to many friends for kind help in revising. I must especially mention my old school fellow, the Rev. R. Powley; Mr. F. Haverfield, of Christ Church ; Mr. L. Whibley, of Pembroke College, Cam bridge ; and, above all, Mr. H. D. Leigh, of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. To them I owe the correc tion of many slips, and the supplying of many omissions. The faults of the book are my own; but they would have been much more numerous had it not been for the kind help of friends. Wadham College, Oxford, July 31st, 189b. CONTENTS Page Introduction : The Geographical Position of Rome and the Races of Italy . . .

I Chapter I. The Traditions of the Regal Period . . 5 II. The Real History of the Regal Period . . 10 III. The Early Days of the Republic, and the First Period of the Struggles of the Orders (510-449) . . . . . iS IV. The Second Period of the Struggle between the Orders (449-367) . . . . 27 V. The Foreign Relations of Rome down to her Capture by the Gauls (390) . • • 33 VI. The Capture of Rome by the Gauls, and her Recovery (390-376) . . . 39 VII. The Final Reduction of the Plain Country . 45 VIII. The First (343-1) and Second (327-304) Samnite Wars . . . . . . 51 IX. The Third Samnite War (298-290), and the Reduction of Italy (290-282) . . 59 X. The Conquest of the Italian Greeks . . 63 XI. The Development of the Roman Constitution during the Period of the Great Wars . . 69 XII. The Roman State during the Period of the Great Wars . . ...

CONTENTS X _ Pace Chapter XIII. Carthage . . ■ ... 84 XIV. The First Punic War . . . . 89 XV. The Interval between the First and Second Punic Wars (241-219) . . . . 98 XVI. The Second Punic War down to the Battle of Cannae (216) . . . • • '°5 XVII. The Second Punic War. Second Period. (From the Battle of Cannae to the Fall of Capua, 216- 211) . . • ... 117 XVIII. The Second Punic War. Third Period. (211-201) . 127 XIX. The Results of the Second Punic War in Italy and in Africa . . . • • 137 XX. The First and Second Macedonian Wars (215-205 and 200-197) . . • • 1 .4 XXI. The War with Antiochus of Syria (192-189) . 151 XXII. The Third Macedonian War (171-168) and the Greek World to the Destruction of Corinth (146) . ... 156 XXIII. Roman Power in Spain during the Second Century b.c. . . ... 164 XXIV.

The Internal History of Rome between the Second and Third Punic Wars . . 171 XXV. Roman Character and Religion during the Period of the Punic Wars . . .176 XXVI. The Third Punic War, and the Condition of Rome after the Fall of Carthage . . 1S2 XXVII. The Economic Condition of Rome, and the Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus (133) . 189 XXVIII. The Democratic Party and Scipio Aemilianus . 197 XXIX. The Tribunates of Caius Gracchus (123-122) . 202 XXX. The Restored Rule of the Senate (122-90) . CONTENTS XI Chapter Pace XXXI. Roman Foreign Policy during the Period of the Revolution . . . .213 XXXII. The Social (90-89) and the Civil Wars (88-81) . 218 XXXIII. The Constitution of Sulla . . . 224 XXXIV. The Wars with Mithradates and with the Pirates . . ... 231 XXXV. Events in Rome during Pompey's Absence (67- 62) . . . ... 240 XXXVI.

The "First Triumvirate" and the Consulship of Caesar (61-59) . ... 247 XXXVII. Events at Rome during Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul (58-51) . . ... 253 XXXVIII. Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul (58-51) . . . 261 XXXIX. The First Civil War (49-45) . . . 269 XL. The Work of Caesar as Master of Rome . . 280 XLI. The Second Period of the Civil Wars (44-31) . 290 XLII. The Work of Augustus in Italy . . . 304 XLIII. The Work of Augustus outside Italy . . 314 XEIV. The Work of the Empire . ... 324

Appendix

I. Chief Dates of Roman History . . . 327 II. The Struggle between the Orders . . 330 III. Growth of Rome's Power in Italy . . 332 IV. Growth of the Roman Provincial System . 336 V. Extension of Roman Privileges . . . 338 VI. Decay of Senatorial Authority . . . LIST OF MAPS Italy . ... To face title page Central Italy . . . ,, page 33 Italy South of the Po . „ ,,51 The Roman Empire in 54 a. d. ,, ,,

Introduction

THE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF ROME AND THE RACES OF ITALY Advantages of the Site of Rome. — The greatness of Rome, as of all other important cities, was largely due to its geographical position ; it was favourably placed at once for internal development, and for relations to the world outside. i. A Natural Fortress. — Its site was well guarded, its seven hills were a natural fortress, while Janiculum was an outwork which defended the passage of the Tiber, and barred attack on the side from which attack was most likely to come. But the city was no mere hill fortress ; placed as it was in a fertile plain, it had plenty of room to expand. In this respect, as in others, the position of Rome may be compared with that of Athens. 2. Well situated for Commerce. — Nor was the site less advantageous for foreign development.

Rome commands the Tiber, the one considerable river of Italy proper, which was navigable at any rate for small boats, and received its most considerable tributary, the Anio, just above Rome. At the same time, the fact that Rome was fifteen miles from the sea, made her secure against piracy. To this natural advantage Rome owed her distinctive position as a city ; she " was not," as Mommsen says, " a commercial town like Carthage or Corinth, but the distinction between her citizens and the Latins generally, is pre-eminently the distinction between citizen and rustic." She was the natural emporium of Latium. 3. In the centre of Italy and of the World. — Again, no city could be more favourably placed for the conquest of Italy. B Standing in the very centre of the peninsula, Rome was able to separate her enemies on the north from those on the south, and in her campaigns she had always the advantage of being able to move her troops on the " inner lines " ; i.e. by the shortest possible routes.

In fact, Rome is, and always has been, the natural capital of Italy. Her central position also aided her in the conquest of the world. Civilization, at that time, gathered round the Mediter ranean Sea, and Rome was in the central peninsula, which divides that sea into east and west. In this respect her position may be compared with that of London, standing midway between the Old World and the New. It is the task of Roman history to describe how this city on the west coast of Italy succeeded in conquering all the rest of the peninsula, and then used the strength of Italy to conquer the world ; the latter success was comparatively easy, when once the former had been accomplished. It will be necessary therefore to sketch very briefly the nations with whom Rome came in contact in Italy, and their geographical position.

Natural Divisions of Italy. — Italy, till quite a late period in history, did not include the valley of the Po. Its boundary was the Apennines, and not the Alps ; or it might rather be said, Italy was the region occupied by the Apennine range and the plains enclosed between it and the sea. Of these plains, the most important were those of Etruria, Latium, and Campania on the west; of Lucania on the south ; and of Apulia on the south-east. Those on the west are by far the most important ; for their harbours are better, and the commercial intercourse of Italy was as naturally directed westwards as that of Greece was eastwards ; in fact, it might be said that the Hellenic and the Italian peninsulas turn their backs on each other, and do not come into contact till quite a late period of their history.

Mixture of Races in Italy. I. The Iapygian.— In Italy there was a considerable admixture of races, belonging probably to three main stocks ; i.e. the Iapygian, the Italian proper, and the Etruscan. The Iapygians were found in Calabria — i.e. in the heel of Italy— and probably also in Apulia. They seem to have been the earliest inhabitants of the

INTRODUCTION.

3 peninsula, and to have been driven southwards before suc cessive hordes of invaders, as the Britons were driven by the English into Wales and Cornwall. They play no part in the history of Italy, and before they came into contact with the Romans, had been very largely Hellenized by the Greek settlements on their coasts. II. The Italians Proper. A. The Latins. — The great bulk of the population of Italy belonged to a race which may be called Italian, to distinguish it from the earlier inhabitants, and from later comers. Of this race there were two great branches, the Latin and the Umbro-Sabellian. The former seem to have first moved southwards, along the west coast of Italy, and to have occupied the plains, which were after wards Latium, Campania, and Lucania. In their southern settlements they were conquered more than once, and received a large admixture of other elements ; but in Latium they held their own, and it is on her position as head of the Latin race that Rome's greatness is based.

Latium proper consists of a district of some 700 square miles, between the Tiber, the spurs of the Apennines, the Alban Mount, and the sea. The very name is significant — it is the " plain country " — as opposed to the mountains of Central Italy, or to the Volscian highlands which separate it from Campania ; hence its triumph in Italy is the triumph of organization and law over isolation and disorder. At what period the Latin League was founded we do not know, but there seems no reason to doubt that, from very early times, the thirty cities of Latium were associated for purposes of defence and of common worship ; it was a Federal league such as existed in Boeotia or in Aetolia. No doubt the original head was Alba, which is marked out by its strong position as the natural centre of the Latin plain, so long as defence was all-important ; here, on the Alban Mount, the Latin " festival " continued to be held, down to the latest times.

At some early period, however, while Rome was still governed by kings, the headship passed from the town best suited for defence to the town marked out for expansion; Alba was superseded by Rome, and between that city and the Latin League the ties were drawn ever closer, till headship passed into empire, and empire into complete union. B. The Umbro-Sabellians.-— The bulk of the Italian tribes seems to have begun to move southward, in successive waves of immigrants, at a later period than the Latins ; in fact, their latest settlements belong to historic times. Tradition related how generations of warriors were sent out to seek a new home for themselves; so the Samnites pushed on into the centre of Italy, led by an ox, and the Picentines into the valleys on the east coast, led by a woodpecker.

These tribes occupied the whole of East and Central Italy, and penetrated to the west coast in Campania and in Lucania ; but the race, as a whole, had no unity in itself, and even its various com munities were bound together only in the loosest form of organization. If, as is probable, the Volsci belonged to this race, then we must suppose that the Oscan branch of it was the first to move and to establish itself to the south of Latium proper, especially in Campania and on the high ground between Latium and Campania, where it was after wards hard pressed by its Sabellian kinsmen. III. The Etruscans. — The district north of the Tiber was occupied by an entirely different race, the Etruscans, or, as they called themselves, the Rasena. Who they were is one of the puzzles of history ; some ancient writers said they came from the East, and connected them with the Lydians, while modern criticism brings them into Italy from the North.

Their importance lies in the fact that they isolated the great district north of the Tiber from the rest of Italy, and so enabled Rome to be the undisputed head of the plain country. The Etruscans themselves were com paratively weak, for they settled as a conquering race in a region where the mass of the population was alien to them — at any rate, in Southern Etruria ; hence they offered less resistance than the Sabellian races to Rome and the Latins. Greek Colonies. — Finally, all round the south and south west coasts of Italy were the Greek colonies, which here, as everywhere, fringed the shores of the Mediterranean. But the Greeks had little power of assimilation; though they introduced the elements of their civilization, yet they did not succeed in Hellenizing the Italian peoples, except in the extreme south-east. TO THE Beatb of Hugustus

Chapter I. The Traditions Of The Regal Period

Importance of Rome's Mythical History. — The story of the Romans, like that of all great nations, begins with myths. These cannot be accepted as history, but it is necessary briefly to record them for two reasons. The Romans them selves believed them, and thought them important; and the genius of Roman poets and historians has made them an important part of the literature and art of the world. Aeneas and the Alban Kingdom. — The hero Aeneas, after the fall of Troy and the wanderings described by Virgil in his Acneid, reached at last the shores of Latium ; he found the country ruled by a king called Latinus, whose daughter Lavinia he married. After a fierce war with her old suitor, Turnus, he succeeded in establishing himself in Latium, where his descendants ruled for three hundred years ; their capital was Alba Longa, which was founded by his son Ascanius, or lulus.

Early in the eighth century E.C. his descendant, the rightful king, Numitor, was dispossessed by his brother Amulius. The latter, in order to secure himself, exposed the twin children, Romulus and Remus, which his niece, Rhea Silvia, bore to the god Mars; but they were suckled by a wolf, and reared unknown to the king. When they grew up they slew the usurper, and restored the throne of Alba to their grandfather. Foundation of Rome : Romulus.— They themselves resolved to found a new city. The honour of giving his name* to this was secured to Romulus by the omen of twelve vultures which he saw on Mount Palatine, and Rome was founded. (753 b.c.) Remus was killed by his brother for jumping over the new wall. 1 Romulus, in order to secure a population for his new city, opened an asylum, to which, as to the cave of Adullam, all the discontented and outcast of the country resorted.

To obtain wives for his warriors, Romulus invited his neighbours, the Sabines, to a festival, and then carried off their daughters. In the war which followed, success was long doubtful. The Sabines captured the Capitol through the treachery of Tarpeia, the daughter of the commander, who opened the gate on condition that she should receive what the enemy "had on their left hands." Indignant at the treachery by which they profited, the Sabines threw her, not their bracelets and rings, but their shields, and crushed her under the weight. This was com memorated ever after by the Tarpeian Rock, the place of execution of Roman traitors. In the end peace was restored through the mediation of the captured Sabine women, and the two nations, the Romans and the Sabines, were united. After this followed a period of long and successful war, by which Romulus extended his territory ; he was at last taken up to heaven by his father Mars, and was worshipped as a god under the name of Quirinus.

Numa Pompilius. — -He was succeeded by the Sabine, Numa, whose long reign was one of unbroken peace : as a symbol of this, he closed the temple of Janus, the double-headed god, whose gates were always open in time of war. (This temple is said to have been closed only three times in Roman history.) Numa, taught by his wife, the nymph Egeria, gave the Romans law and organised their religion. He was considered the founder of Roman civilization, as Romulus was of Roman military power. 1 These traditions are embodied in Macaulay's Prophecy of Capys. TRADITIONS OF THE REGAL PERIOD 7 Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius. — His successor, Tullus Hostilius, was an exact contrast to Numa, for he was con stantly at war. His most famous struggle was against the mother city of Alba ; this was decided by the single combat of the three Roman Horatii against the three Latin Curiatii.

The victory thus won had a tragic result in Rome. The survivor of the Horatii slew his own sister for mourning one of the Curiatii, who was her lover, and was only saved from death by "appealing" to the Roman people, who refused to allow the execution of one whose bravery had saved Rome. Alba was soon afterwards razed to the ground, and its population brought to Rome. Tullus finally was killed by lightning, and was succeeded by the grandson of Numa, Ancus Marcius. The reign of this king was mainly peaceful, but he also extended the Roman territory and the boundaries of the city. He founded the seaport of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, and included the Aventine Hill within Rome, in order to give room for the increasing population. Tarquinius Priscus. — After his death a king of an entirely new family succeeded.

Tarquinius Priscus, an Etruscan refugee, but descended from a Greek family, was appointed by Ancus to be the guardian of his sons. Tarquin supplanted them, and secured the throne for himself. His conquests were very wide. He subdued the whole of Etruria, and brought thence to Rome the curule chair and the rods and axes, the emblems of sovereignty {Im perium). He also carried out great works in Rome, especially the draining of the low valley between the Palatine and the Capitoline Hills, by the great sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, which still runs below the Forum. He, moreover, increased the number of the nobles, and added one hundred members to the Senate. Servius Tullius. — After a long and successful reign he was murdered by the sons of Ancus Marcius, and was succeeded by Servius Tullius, a man of low birth, who had won his favour and the hand of his daughter.

The reign of this king was mainly peaceful, but he extended the power of Rome by a treaty with the Latins, who henceforward appear as her constant allies. He also surrounded Rome with a great wall, parts of which still exist. His most important work, however, was the organization of the people on the basis of landed property, and not of birth He founded the Comitia Centuriata, which was henceforth the chief assembly of the Roman people, both for peace and for war; but the old assembly, the Comitia Curiata, still existed, with special powers. Tarquinius Superbus.— These changes gave great offence to the nobles. Tarquinius Superbus, the son of Tarquinius Priscus and son-in-law of Servius, conspired with his wicked wife Tullia, and, putting himself at the head of the discon tented citizens, murdered Servius and seized the throne.

His reign was that of the typical tyrant. He oppressed the people at home, and extended his dominions abroad by war and by marriage alliances ; his most important conquest was Gabii, which was betrayed to him by his son Sextus, who had treacherously won the chief command in that city. Expulsion of the Kings. — But Tarquin's pride and cruelty brought about his fall. An outrage on a Roman matron, Lucretia, committed by his son Sextus, raised all the people against him, and Tarquin, with his family, were expelled. (510) In their place the Roman people elected two magistrates (eonsu/es1), holding office for a year only, who shared the royal power between them. The first two consuls were L. Junius Brutus, the nephew of Tarquin, who had led the revolt, and L. Tarquinius Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia.

Thus Rome was delivered from kings in the same year in which the despots, the Pisistratidae, were expelled from Athens. The story as to the Regal period of Rome comes to us from Livy and from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who had taken it in their turn from the older Roman annalists ; it seems to date back, pretty much in its present shape, to the period just before the second Punic War. It cannot be accepted as history, though there may easily be some frag ments of truth embodied in it, and though it is likely enough that it presents a picture (however distorted) of what may have actually happened. Perhaps we may detect the following elements of false hood in it : — 1 Very probably their original title was " praetors." TRADITIONS OF THE REGAL PERIOD 9 (1) There is a constant tendency to exaggerate the extent of the Roman conquests.

(2) The story was developed at a period when all literature at Rome, including the writing of history, was Greek, and so there are many Greek elements intruded ; e.g. the story of Aeneas and the Greek origin of the Tarquins. (3) The Greeks also introduced stories borrowed from their own history, e.g. the last Tarquin behaves like the typical Greek tyrant, and the very same acts are attributed to him as to Periander of Corinth, e.g. the symbolic message sent to Sextus at Gabii by striking down the tallest poppies. (4) Many of the stories are obviously invented to explain names and customs : e.g. the story of Tarpeia is an attempt to account for the choice of the Tarpeian Rock as the place for executing traitors, and the carrying oft of the Sabine maidens is probably invented to explain some relics of the primitive " marriage by capture " which survived in Rome.

Chapter II

I HE REAL HISTORY OF THE REGAL PERIOD Real History of Rome under the Kings. — The stories recorded in the last chapter are full of improbabilities and of miracles, and there is no evidence of their existence in their present shape before 300 B.C., i.e. more than two centuries after the events described; but it is possible from existing remains, such as the old walls, and from survivals of custom, to infer in outline the history of Rome under the kings. The Romans a Mixed Race. — Two or three points stand out clearly. In the first place, the evidence points to the fact that the Romans were a mixed race; with the Latin stock, to which they mainly belonged, were mingled foreign elements, the most important of which were the Sabine and the Etruscan. It seems probable that the Sabines— i.e. the hill tribes to the north-east of Rome — at some early period conquered the city; they were too few to alter the Latin character of the people, but their influence may be compared to that of the invading Danes or Normans in England.

It must not be forgotten that the Sabines were closely akin to the Latins, just as the Danes and the Normans were to the English. The Etruscan element at Rome belongs to a later period. This mixture of races is only another instance of the general rule that it is the mixed nations which play the most prominent part in history. Athens in Greece, and England in modern Europe, furnish obvious comparisons. Rome at first an unimportant Latin town.— The second great feature in Roman history in the early period is the evident unimportance of its conquests: it is clear that Rome's territory extended but a few miles either to the north or to the south ; the only real growth was down the Tiber, for the foundation of Ostia may certainly be placed during this period Thirdly, Rome, even at this time, is clearly becoming the champion of the Latin race against the Etruscans on the north ; it is this close connection with Latium which is the great feature of Rome's foreign relations during the first four centuries of her existence.

Mommsen's view of Early Rome. — In one very important respect Mommsen's view as to the early history of Rome differs from the traditional one. He denies that the Romans were in any real sense a mixed race, and though he admits that the tribe of the Tities represents a Sabine element, he considers this quite unimportant. According to him, we may trace three stages in the early history of Rome. In the first stage, Latium was divided into isolated communities, which had not reached the condition of towns, and which had for the symbol of their unity the hill fortress, only used in times of war and for religious gatherings, not as a place of habitation ; some such community had a hill fortress on the Palatine. In the second stage, Rome becomes a town, and extends her domain down the banks of the Tiber to its mouth ; round the Palatine, which had now become a place of habitation, were grouped other quarters, e.g. the Subura and the Esquiliae (i.e. the " outer quarters ").

The union of these with the Palatine was commemorated in later Rome by the festival of the Septimontium. In the third stage, Rome begins to contend for the sovereignty of the Latin League, and is further extended by the incorporation of the " hill town " which was on the Quirinal, with the older settlement which was on and round the Palatine. This incorporation is marked by the surrounding of the whole city with the so-called "Servian" wall. Gradual growth of Rome. — Setting aside the negative part of this theory, there remains a point of the utmost importance. It is most true that "Rome was not built in a day." If there ever were a king named Romulus, his importance would be very slight, for the real work of founding Rome was gradual. Out of the union of families had grown up the tribal settlements, and when these in turn united, the civitas was formed, probably at first being a mere hill fortress, and only afterwards a definite place of habitation.