Elements of geography, and of natural and civil history ... Third edition

Front matter

ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY, AND OF NATURAL and CIVIL H I S T 0 R Y. CONTAINING I. The Order of the Spheres. V. Changes through different Ages in the Manners of Mankind. II. The Economy of the Sublunary Works of Creation, inanimate and living. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Description of thedifferent Quarters of the World.; Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Their Divisions into Countries, Provinces, Sec. Their Cli' mates, Soils, Animals, Plants, Minerals, Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Canals, Commerce, Manufactures, Curiosities, Schools, Learning, Literati, Religious Professions, Language, Government, History, &c. III. Picturesque and general Sketches of the different Puts of the Earth; and the varied Appearances and Manners of it's Inhabitants. IV. The Rife, Revolution, and Fall, of the principal Empires of the World.

By JOHN WALKER. THIRD EDITION. LONDON: PRINTED BY AND FOR DARTON and HARVEY, No. 55, GRACECHURCH-STREET, Foil Longman and Re es, H. D. $ymonbs, Ver nob and Hood, J. Walker, J. Cut-hell, J. Scatchehd, Lacxington, Allen and Co. Otridge and Son,R. Faulder.R. Lea, Ogilvy and Son, C. Law,T. Hurst, J. Wright,Crosb Y andLettekmaN, J. Walljs, and West and Hughe?. 1800.

Preface

. Gowley and Milton did not err, when the one, in his Plan of an Academy, the other in his Epistle to Hartlib on the subject; of education, earnestly proposed, that the principles of physical science, and of the chief practical arts ot' life, should be associated with those works of history, ethics, and elegant literature, which were wont to be put into the hands of youth, in the usual course of liberal instruction. When Johnson, in his accounts of the Lives and Writ ings of those great Poets, affirms experience to have evinced the inutility of the innovations which they thus suggested ; he contradicts the truth of the facts. The early propensities b£ children, their sports, the necessities of their mode of life, their restless activity, and their insatiable curiosity, give them, com monly, in the progress of their early years, a much more familiar and intelligent acquaintance with the physical laws and appearances of nature, than it is possible, that they can, in the fame time, be, by any instruition, introduced to, with the principles of ethics, and their application to human manners.

If a too early and too exclusive partiality for books, seclude the boy, unseasonably, from the spofts of his fellows ; or if he be thus confined by harsh or injudicious tutors ; he is soon re marked to be deficient in common sense, which it is well un* derstood, that no book-learning can, alone, bestow. In proportion as knowledge artd civility have been improved in England, in the course of these two last centuries, instructioa in physical science, and in the arts of common life, has been. continually more and more combined with that classical education which was once, exclusively, accounted liberal. The change has taken place tacitly and gradually. It has proceeded, riot from the efforts of bold innovators, but from general feel ing and universal, unforced conviction. Arithmetic, drawing, natural history, geography, the first elements of natural philo sophy, and the practice of some of the simpler and more amu sive, mechanic arts, are, thus, in part, taught to children, even A 2 in

PREFACE.

. in some of those inferior schools, in which their literary education begins. Many of the new books of mingled instruction and amusement, which have been lately provided for children, and several new games which have been invented for them, are adapted chiefly to improve them in the physical knowledge of nature. Much more at universities, and in all the higher seminaries for education, has that exclusive preference, which was once given to the objects of classical instruction, gradually and beneficially declined. In those universities to which there is now the greatest concourse of students from all parts, studies merely literary hold but a very subordinate place. Those sciences which explain the laws and appearances of material nature, are there taught with at least as much diligence and success, as those which relate only to moral and intellectual things.

In teaching the principles of the physical sciences, almost all the operations of the mechanical and che mical arts are, more or less, particularly described. Into that more imperfect education, too, which the young trader, farmer, or artisan receives, tbe first principles of physical knowledge, have, since society began to be more enlightened, been, at least in an equal proportion, introduced, both by express scholastic instruction, and by means of books. Nor have we any reason to think, that this gradual change in our modes of education, has tended either to dwarf the genius of the rising age, or to make it shoot out in an unnatural and barren luxuriancy. Whatever prejudice or ignorance may, at any time, affirm to the contrary ; it is certain, that Englishmen have, neither in meral nor intellectual excellence, declined from the illustrious example of their forefathers.

Of all the various books that have been, at different times, provided, to convey this mixed instruction, which is the best adapted for the uses of life, perhaps none have been so. long and so extensively serviceable, as those Systems of Geo graphy, which are now in universal reception among readers of all classes. Of pure Geography, it is the proper business, «• to describe the figure of the earth, to explain it's more " general relations to other surrounding orbs; to mark those 3 natural

PREFACE.

. V " natural divisions of it's surface, which arise from differences " of temperature and illumination, with those which are pro " duced by inequalities of level, by the distribution of the " waters, and by any very remarkable distinctions of animal or " vegetable produce ; perhaps, also, to mark the chief divisions, " artificial and civil, by which this earth is parted out among " different nations, states, and tribes." But, in those Sys tems, it is not pure Geography that is represented, but Geography delivered, as much as possible, from the auste rity of abstract science, and associated with every other branch ef useful knowledge, that can be brought easily into combination with it. Much of natural and of civil history, a wide display of the transactions of commerce and the practice of the arts, an explication of the simpler principles of astrono my, a variety of details concerning laws, manners, and political regulations, with many incidental hints of the fundamental truths of the mechanical philosophy, are interspersed through out their tenor, and compose it's most interesting and instruc tive parts.

Knowledge is, here, presented to the mind in a sort of orderly confusion, not unlike to that in which it is to be read in the works of Nature, which gives much more delight, than dry precision, discrimination, and formality. The following System of Geography was, in it's first composition, intended to accomplish the general purposes of such books, more fully and effectually than any former system of the same sort. It was thought by the ingenious author, that a popular view of the principles of what is called Na tural Philosophy, might be, with sufficient propriety, and certainly with very great advantage, exhibited in his work ; since, even the most general facts relative to the earth could not well be understood without some knowledge ol the principal modifications of the great law of Gravita tion.

Chemical Attraction is so much more ex tensive, than was once imagined, in it's influence on all the appearances of Nature ; it's laws are, in their operation, so beautiful, so sublime, and so important ; it. enters so deeply into the better half of .all the art* of life ; and recent discoveries VI PREFACE; coveries Had made it so much a favourite object of general attention ; that he could not but think a short, perspicuous view of the Elements of Chemistry, likely to prove extremely useful to most of those into whose hands his book might be expected to fall. Of the charming science of Botany, it seemed peculiarly requisite to introduce some explanation ; for, without this, how should the reader peruse, with clear intelligence, those subsequent parts of the book, which were to speak of the various plants peculiar to the soil and cli mate of every different country ?

Without some sketches of ANATOMY.it would have been impossible to communicate any clear and just notions of the most important particulars in the Natural History os Man : Nor is there any part of speculative science, more engaging or useful than the Phy siology of the human body, in the state of improvement to which it has been at length advanced. In tracing the Na tural History of Man and of Society, it was thought ne cessary-to exhibit together, an assemblage of all the most curious and uncommon facts, which voyagers and travellers have lately furnished concerning them. Of the inferior ant. mals, too, and of what may be termed the general Physiology of the Earth, such sketches were given, as seemed the fittest to open the mind for the farther study of this entertaining and eminently useful branch of knowledge.

So far, the plan of the judicious Author was, for a Sys tem of Geography, new and peculiar. In the execu tion of the other parts, there was a beaten track, which he might not easily avoid following. The wonted technical language of Geography, he was careful to explain with perspi cuity and precision. Where the divisions of the Earth's sur face, the comparison of it's movements with those of the other planetary bodies, it's diversities of local aspect, temperature, and illumination, were to be best explained by the use of Globes and Maps ; these he carefully taught his reader how to understand and employ. Of every different region of the Earth, and of all it's chief civil divisions, he was attentive, accurately to mark the peculiar features, and to define the limns.

PREFACE.

. VII mits. Under the head of every different country or kingdom, he gave, as had been usually done, a sort os compend of it's Natural, Civil, and Military History. He proportioned the relative importance of every country, in his System of Geo graphy, to it's importance in the scale of civilized states, and in it's relations to the British empire. He breathed into the whole work an animating spirit of freedom, virtue, and generous philanthropy, by which it was fitted to refine and exalt the sentiments of the heart, not lels than to inform the understanding with a happy mixture of practical science. He wrote with the genuine ardour of a faithful votary of knowledge ! and there were, in his language, a spirit, an elegance, a correctness, exceedingly superior lo the tenor of composition in those geographical compilations which the interests and artifices of booksellers have too long ■obliged the public to buy, though it could not approve.

An air of philosophical ingenuity, too, was diffused over the whole, which might tend to communicate to the reader's mind, some vvhat of the power of philosophic invention and research ; in stead of suffering the book to operate with that torpedo-influence, benumbing all the faculties, which compilers anil their compilations hardly ever fail most efficaciously to exercise, to the utter extinction of genius. The hopes and wishes of the Author and the Publishers have been amply gratified. A large edition was disposed of, in the way of. subscription. General approbation expressed by those into whose hands the book fell, after it's first appearance ; and the remarkable superiority which it was found to possess, as a System of Geography, &c. for the use os Free Schools, Academies, and Universities, for Mer chants, Farmers, Mariners, Artisans,^/- Per sons os liberal curiosity throughout all the depart ments of busy life ; in a particular manner, for the use ot mothers who disdain not to watch over the education os their children, and indeed, for the use os the female sex in general; soon rendered it necessary to republilh the work, in a second edition. That edition, though ample, has been entirely sold.

PREFACE.

. sold. The increasing preference of the public for the book, has occasioned this third edition to be prepared. The change of things since the time of the publication of the first edition, was thought to demand some alterations, curtailments, and additions. Written at a period when the enthusiasm for moral and political improvements was naturally esteemed the noblest of human sentiments ; it had received from the bold, glowing mind of it's author, perhaps too strong an infusion of that generous extravagance of thought. Subsequent events have evinced, that there is no other more fruitful source of universal mischief than such headlong ardour for innovation : and every wild, political sally has, there fore, been, in this edition, religiously suppressed. In a work exhibiting a popular view of so wide a range of science, it could not be, but that some slight mistakes should elude either the knowledge or the care of the Author.

What ever objects of this sort could be discovered, have been, in the present edition, attentively removed. New discoveries made by voyagers and travellers, new events in the progress of political society, demanded changes and addi tions, which have been diligently made, in the topographical and historical parts of this work. It now exhibits faithfully the present state of British Geography, and of the knowledge, usually connected with it, for all the different parts of the world. These alterations and additions could not be executed by the Author himself, who is not now in England. But, the task of performing them, and of superintending this third edition, in it's progress through the press, was committed to a person, who had some experience in such matters; who entertains great deference for the talents and extensive knowledge of the Author; and who has taken much pains to leave nothing un amended that actually required emendation, without altering anything from the mere wantonness of using impertinent free doms with the writings of another. CONTENTS. CONTENTS

Part I

, ORDER of the SPHERES. , Sect. I. Of the Earth, Planetary Motions, Mechanics, Seasons, Sec. Moon, Eclipses, Tides, Sec. Se.ct. II. History of Astronomy, Definition of Circles, &c. Celestial and Terrestrial, Planetary Laws, aud the Methods, of investigating the Mo tions, Magnitudes, and Distances ot the Heavenly Bodies. Sect. III. The Solar System and Starry Heavens. Asiron. Encyc. Brit. Bonnycasile, Boyee, J. Churchman Philadelphia, J. Ferguson, J. Grubb Clonmcll, Herschell, R. Jackson Dublin, Newton, J. Swan London, A. Walker.

Part II. Sublunary Creation

1 Sect. IV. Of tlie Four Elements, Divisibility of Matter, Ptrpetu?.' Motion, Chemical Laws, Set, Sect. V. Of the Mineral Department, or unorganized Part of Creation, including the Fluids, &c. as Magnetism, Electricity, Light, Heat, Atmo sphere, Meteors, Waters, &c. Sect. VI. The Mineral Department continued, including the Solids, &c. as Alkalis, Acids, Earths, and Stones, Semi-metals, and Metals. Sect. VII. Ot" the Vegetable Department, including the Structure, Nu trition, and Products of Plants ; the Origin of Coal Mines and Volcanos ; and the Fructification and Unfolding of Plants. Sect. VIII. The Animal Department, including the Structure and Nu triment of the Body, tlie Circulation of the Fluids, Sec. and the Division of Animals into Quadrupeds, Birds, Amphibia, Fifties, Insects, and Worms.

Agricul. Encyc. Brit. W. Allen London, T. Bell Dublin, Chaptal, Cheselden, IV. Dease Dublin, Electr. Encyc. Brit. W. Pardon Witney, Goldsmith, Locke, D. Monro, T. Pole London, J. Priestley, Rousseau, J. IVagstaff Norwich,*?'. IVaite Dublin.

Part III. Sketches

of the EARTH. Sect. IX. Of the Diversity produced by Climate and Domestication ; Reduction of Mankind into three Grand Divisions, and Establishment ot a Colony at Botany Bay. Sect. X. Islands in the South Seas, the Indian and Pacific Ocean, with an Abstract of Cook's Voyages, Sec. Sect. XI. The Continental Parts of Asia, including the Tartars, Chi nese, Hindoos, Persians, Arabs, Turks, Sec. Sect. XII. The Countries of Africa, Egypt, Barbary, Ethiopia, Negro land, Guinea, Enslavement of the Africans, and Slavery in Antiquity. Sect. XIII. The Discovery of America, and the Events which followed it; with a Description of the Indians, or Native Americans. Sect. XIV. A general Description of the People inhabiting the Lands found tfce North Pole, particularly the Natives ot" Greenland, and the Lap landTS, b Sect.

CONTENTS. Sect. XV. A View of the Manners, &c. of the People of Europe, with 1 Comparison between London and the Country Parts of Ireland. Sect. XVL Different Appearances ot the Earth in different Climates ; Diversity of Animals, their Manners, Sec. Alexander, Benezet, Bible, Clarkson, Cook's, and other Voyages, Cranlz,, W. Dixon Edinburgh, Goldsmith, Raynal.

Part IV. Revolutionary History

SECT. XVII. Ancient and Modern History. Sect. XVIII. Ancient History, containing an Account of the principal Revolutions of Empires in Antiquity. Sect. XIX. Modern History, including the Disputes of the Christians and Mahometans, the Ravages of the Tartars, and the present Divisions of the Earth. Bible, A. Ferguson, Guthrie, Hist. Encyc. Bat. Justin, J. Priestley.

Part V. Manners Varying

Sect. XX. Ancient Times, including the Origin of the Arts, Sciences, Commerce, Sec. the Ancient Heathens, the Primitive Christians, and the Germans in their Forests. Sect. XXI. Middle and Modern Times, exhibiting the -rude Manners of the Feudal Times ; with the gradual Advancement of Europe in Arts, Sciences, aud Commerce : and the Secession of the Protestants irom the Church of Rome. Bible, Boyce, Gibbon, Millar, Robertson.

Part VI. Description

of EUROPE. Sect. XXII. British Isles.— Sect. XXIII. England and Wales.— Sect. XXIV. Scotland Sect. XXV. Ireland.— Sect. XXVI. Den. mark, No"rway, Sec. — Sect. XXVII. Norway, Iceland, &c. — SicT. XXVIII. Sweden.— Sect. XXIX. Muscovy, or Russia.— Sect. XXX. Poland.— Sect. XXXI. Prussia Sect. XXXII. Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, &c— Sect. XXXIII. Swisserland Sect. XXXIV. Holland. —Sect. XXXV. Flanders.— Sect. XXXVI. France.— Sect. XXXVII. Spain.— Sect. XXXVIII. Portugal.— Sect. XXXIX. Italy.— Sect. XL. Turkey. Gordon, Gutbrie, M. Wollstonecrast, Jones, Martyn, T. Payne, J. Priestley, Salmon, Voltaire, Vyfe, C B. Wadstrom.

Part VII. Description

of ASIA. Sect. XLI. Turkey in Asia.— Sect. XLII. Tartary.— Sect. XLIII. China— Sect.XLIV. India.— Sect. XLV. Persia.— Sect. XLVI. Arabia. —Sect. XLVII. Asiatic Isles. Gutbrie, Jones, Martyn, J. Priestley, Salmon, Vyfe, PART CONTENTS.

Part VIII. Description

of AFRICA. Sect. XLVIII. Egypt.— Sect. XLIX. Barbary.— Sect. L. Western Parts of Alrica. — Sect. LI. Eastern Parts of Atrica. — Sect. LII. Cha racter of the Africans ; European Settlements, &c. on the Continent, aud in the Isles. Guthrie, Jones, Martyn, J. Priestley, Salmon, Vyfe, IVadstmm.

Part IX. Description

of NORTH AMERICA. Sect. LIII. American Islands. — Sect. LIV. British America. — Sect. LV. History of the United States.— Sect. LVI. Description ot the United States. — Sect. LVII. Territories of Spain in North America. Guthrie, Jones, Martyn, Morse, J. Priestley, Raynal, Salmon, Vyfe.

Part X. Description

of SOUTH AMERICA. ■'Sect. LVIII. Portuguese America, or Brazil. — Sect. LIX. French and Dutch America, or Guiana. — Sect. LX. Spanish South AWsericH.— - Sect. LXI. Amazonia, and Patagonia. — Sect. LXII. Islands of Soath America. — Sect. LXI1I. Amencnn Indians. Gutbrie, Jones, Martyn, J. Priestley, Raynal, Salmon,. Vyfe. .*, The names in italic are authorities consulted, and tfce correspondents, who have supplied information to the work. DIRECTIONS DIRECTIONS to the BINDER. The plates will be most convenient for consultation, if bound up by them selves, separately from the work, and will form a small Atlas, &c. otherwise they may be inserted in the following order. plate. page. i World, to face title i 2 Mechanical Figures, &c. 5 3 Astronomical Ditto, 9 4. Ditto, 17 5 Optical Figures, &c. 67 6 Botanical Ditto, &c. 127 ■y General Chart, 149 8 Historical Chart, 278 9 Europe, 33° to England and Wales, 343 11 Scotland, 357 31 Ireland, 366 1 3 Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Finland, 379 14 Northern Part of Russia, 391 j 5 Southern Part of Russia, 391 plate . page 16 Poland, 395 17 Germany, 403 18 SwiiTerland, 410 19 Holland, 414, 20 Netherlands, 4.23 21 France, 416 22 Spain and Portugal, 457 23 Italy, 465 24 Turkey and Hungary, 470 25 Asia, 481 26 Hindoostan, 486 27 Africa, 49 $ 28 West Indies, 527 29 North America, 529 30 South America, ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY, AND OF NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY,

Part I. Order Of The Spheres

IN the remote ages of antiquity, ere man had made any great progress in science ; in theyet uninformed nations of theworld; among thole people in improved nations who think on the nature of things but seldom, and then very superficially ; and among the puerile re flections of the greatest geniuses, — -vague and romantic have been the conjectures respecting the form, extent, and boundaries of the earth. From our imperfect view of things, we arnaturally induced to suppose it necessary for every heavy body to e something to reft upon, or be suspended from ; hence, some have imagined the stars to be lamps let down from heaven by golden chains ; the sky, a vast arch ; the earth, an extended plain, resting on they knew notwhat, and bounded they knew not how.

Section I

Of the Earth, Planetary Motions, Mechanics, Seasons, &c. Moon, Eclipses, Tides, &V. I, Figure of the Earth.] It clearly appears, from the researches of men of science, that the land and water of our world, together form B a large Part I. ORDER OF 2 a Urge round body, fthich is balanced in the firmament, like the moon and planets ; a globe of so prodigious a size, that its highest mountains are, Con. pared to itself, but as a grain of dust on an arti ficial sphere; and to us, little mortals, who dwell on its surface, its spherical'figure is harcfly discernible ; yet, without sailing round the world, as many have really done, we have sufficient reason to con elude, with but little observation, that the earth is a globe, or of some similar shape. If we take a stand on the sea-shore, on a clear day, and view ships leaving the coast, in any direction whatsoever ; as they recede from us, we may distinctly observe the ringing of the vcflels, :\ hen the hulls are quite out of sight, as if funk in the walers.

An observer in an evening, from the top ofa hill, may distinctly see the setting sun, when it appears to those below, to have funk below the horizon ; nay, a person swift of foot, when it has set to him below, may in some situations, by running up the hill, regain his view. Thus, when rii j'Ag; does it first tip the tops of the mountains with its rays-; andthvii do sailors, on their first making land, discover the high parts of the coast, but not the very shore, till they are pretty close in with the land. Now, were the surface of the sea an extensive plain of waters, through defect of sight only, thickness of atmosphere, or some such like causes, we should lose light of the objects, and then they would disappear all at once. Moreover, at the time ofa lunar eclipse, which is produced by the earth's being between the fun and moon, and thus intercepting the rays of the former from the latter, we have an indubitable proof of the rotundity of the earth from the form ot its shadow, which is always bounded by a circular line. 2.

Antipodes and Attraction.] If then this huge mass of matter, this whole e:nth, be a globe or round ball, we may naturally enquire, from what dues it hang, or what is there beneath to keep it up? How are things supported on its surface ? And what miserable people are om Antipodes, walking with their heads downwards ? No race of people on our globe walk with their heads downwards, though their faces may be directed to every part of the heavens, through their inhabiting the different parts of the surface of the round world; and our Antipodes walk as erect as we do, though their heads are diametrically opposite from ours ; for they are a3 strongly drawn to their part of the earth as we are to ours ; and might as. reasonably imagine that we are under the strange predicament of walking- Kith our feet upwards, like a fly on a ctiling.

It seems to be an universal law i» the creation, that bodies have a mutual attraction, tendency, or gravitation towards each other • and the heavier bodies are, and the nearer they are to each other, the more strongly are they attracted. The cause is inexplicable from any enquiries in natural philosophy, and can only be resolved into the will of the Creator, whose works we may contemplate with wonder but the least of which we can never fully comprehend. That this attraction exists, is deduced, not only from speculation on the natare of things, but from actual experiment. A weight Sect. I. THE SPHERES. 3 A weight suspended by a string from the precipice of a mountain, if undisturbed by any current of air, or if ic be perfectly calm, is ob served to deviate from a perpendicular. The prodigious mass of mat ter contained in the mountain, attracts the weight towards itself.

In like manner, if two bundles of ropes of equal weight be suspend ed at the ends of an accurate balance, or scale-beam, on the surface of the earth, they will equiponderate; but if one of these ropes, instead of being rolled up in a bundle, be loosened out, and let to hang at length down the mouth of a deep coal-pit or mine, the rope thus extended loses some of its weight, though it hang perfectly free as before from the end of the balance ; and the rope that remains above preponde rates through the other's being attracted by the sides of the coal-pit* in directions counteracting its perpendicular descent. May it not be owing to something of this sort, that soundings cannot be obtained at sea beyond a certain depth ? for if there were nothing to prevent the plummet from sinking but the buoyancy of the string, would not an increase of the weight, or of the size of the plummet, cause it to sink to the greatest depth ?

The principle of attraction seems to be as a chain in the works of the creation, to bind the elements under harmonious order and wholesome laws ; for it. appeals to be owing to this that the world remains a solid ball ; the sea keeps in the depths of the earth ; the mountains rest firm on their foundations, and things universally hold their respective places. By the fame principle of attraction, the rivulets of water tumble from the hills, glide down the vallies, and settle in the deep. The air is an elastic fluid. It also gravitates towards the earth; becoming heavier the lower it descends ; and, if there be any light bodies in the way, such as smoke, mist, &c. whether at large, or confined in bal loons ; any things lighter than itself ; these naturally ascend, through the air's superior gravity, to regions of equal rarity with themselves; as the dense water bears up light things from sinking, while heavy bodies force their way to the bottom, in spite of all the resistance the water can make. 3.

Divisions of the Earth.] The most cibvious divisions that present themselves, on a view of the surface of our globe, are those that are made by the yielding water on the crooked shore ; these are out lines in some measure fixed and permanent. A continent is a' large track of land not separated by the sea ; as Europe, Asia, Sec. An ocean is a vast collection of water not sepa rated by land ; as the Atlantic, Pacific, &c. A sea is a smaller col lection of water communicating with the ocean ; as the Mediterra nean, the Baltic. An island is a track of land surrounded by water ; as Great Britain, Ireland, &c. A lake is water surrounded by land ; as the Lake of Geneva. A cape or promontory is a point of land running far into the sea ; as the Cape of Good Hope. A bay is a part of the ocean running far into the land; as the Bay of Biscay.

B a A peninsula ORDER OF Faet l" 4 A peninsula is land almost surrounded with water ; as the Morca, A gulph is a part of the tea almost surrounded with land ; as tin Gulph of Venice. . . . , , An isthmus is the narrow part of land which joins the penintuU to any country ; as the Isthmus of Suez. A strait is a narrow passage f i out one sea to another ; as the Strait of Gibraltar. Geographers have usually divided the world intofour quarters; Europe" Alia, Asiica, and America. If we take Europe, tiy much the smallest division, as A place of departure, America lies to the west, Asia to the east, and Africa to the south. America is called the New World by Europeans, from their having but lately discovered it ; the other quarters they call the Old World. America is separated from the old world, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Pacific, and stretches through every inhabited latitude or climate of the earth. .%.,..

The <>..ean, with which tlie earth is encompassed, is divided into five principal part:, j the Atlantic, having Europe and Africa E. and America W. ; the Pacific between Asia and America ; the Eastern, or Indian, which wasties the eastern coast of Africa, and the shores of Asiatic India ; the Northern, through which the passage to the Pacific has been attempted from Europe in vain ; and the Southern, which is blocked up with ice in still lower latitudes than what have been passed in the northern hemisphere. The seas are more than three or nearly four times the extent of the land ; and of the most extensive quarters of the world we know little more than the coasts. The four quarters of the globe are computed to bear nearly the following proportion to each other : If Europe be i, then Africa will be 3, and Alia and America more then 3^ each.