The Tricolor on the Atlas; or Algeria and the French Conquest. From the German of Dr. W. and other sources. By F. Pulszky

Preface

. Among the Tourists who have given us an account of the Regency of Algeria, the Bavarian naturalist, Dr. Moritz Wagner, has distinguished himself by the liveliness of his descriptions, the earnestness of his researches, and the frankness with which he has expressed his views. He remained for three years in the Regency, and published in 1841 an amusing and instructive account of his journey. A great portion of his Work having become antiquated, I have condensed his first volume, translated his second, added an account of later events, from the capture of Constantine to the surrender of Abd-el-Kader, and given a general view of the present state of the French possessions on the north coast of Africa I have made careful use of the most recent French works on Algeria, and principally of the official Blue Book, published by imperial authority in 1853, under the title "Tableau de la Situa tion des Etablissements Francais dans l'Alg6rie, 1850-52." FEANCIS PULSZKY. Mat, 1854, CONTENTS

Part I

, DESCRIPTION OF THE REGENCY OF ALGERIA. Chap. faca I.— The City of Algiers, 9 IL— Algerine Life, 23 III. — The Neighbourhood of Algiers, 39 IV. — Rassota — Reghala — Rusgonia — Belida — Coleah, 52 V.— The Eastern Coast of Algeria, 67 VI. — The Province of Constantine, 86 VII. — Excursion from Algiers to the West, 101

Part II. The Native Races Of The Regency Of Algiers

I.— The Arabs, 121 II.— The Kabyles, 100 III.— The Moors, 172 IV.— The Turks and Kuruglis 1S3 V. — The Jews 180 VI. — The Negroes, 195 VIL— The Mozabites 1!)S vi CONTENTS.

Part III. History Of The Regency Of Algeria

Cliap. Page L — Northern Africa, from the Earliest Epoch to the Landing of the Turks in Algeria, 204 IL— Algeria, from the Establishment ofthe Turkish Dominion to the French Conquest, 218 I1L— Administrations of Marshal Clauzel and of General Berthezene, 232 IV.— The Administration ofthe Duke of Rovigo and of General Voirol, 24S V.— Administration of Count Drouet d'Erlon, and Second Administration of Marshal Clauzel, 207 VL— The Administration of General Damre'mont, and the Expedition to Constantine, 286 VIL— The Administration of Marshal Valte, 348 VTII. — The Administration of General Bugeaud, 859 IX— The Catastrophe of Abd-el-Kader, and ofhis Conquerors, 372 X.— Recapitulation, 3S3 THE TRICOLOR ON THE ATLAS.

Chapter I. The City Of Algiers

Amongst the Arabs, Algiers is known under the name of El Jesair, which means in Arabic "The Valiant." The city is likewise called so by the Kabyles and the Negroes of the in terior. As often as the natives are asked why they call this city the "Valiant," they invariably answer, " because it has humbled the Christians." But it has retained the name to this day, though the Christians have taken their revenge. We have corrupted this appellation into Algiers. The city has a triangular form, and is situated on the amphi theatrical slope of a hill, rising 372 feet above the sea, which washes its foot. The houses are all whitewashed ; they are not surmounted by gable roofs, but form terraces ; and only the new buildings have windows towards the street. All the Moorish houses present a dead wall towards the thoroughfares ; the citj looks therefore very strange, and its aspect from the sea resembles a gigantic marble quarry.

The harbour is small, scarcely affording shelter to thirty ships; but its depth is sufficient for middle sized men-of-war. A dyke thrown into the sea, and running for 300 feet from west to east, protected the ships against the surf of the sea. The French have continued this dyke ever since 1830, and the harbour is now large enough for the require ments of trade. The population of Algiers — French troops not included— was in 1839, estimated to be 28,000: 9000 Moors, 6000 Jews, 5000 natives ofthe interior, Arabs, Kabyles, Biskaris, and Mozabites, and 8000 Europeans. It is therefore by no means probable, that previous to 1830, the number of inhabitants should have amounted to more than 35,000, as the number of the Mohammedans who left the city since the conquest, does not amount to more than 15,000.

In 1852, the census return shows for Algiers a population of 35,197 Europeans, and 23,303 natives. Algiers consists of two great parts. The lower portion begins at the port, and extends to the old palace of the Dey, which is situated almost in the centre of the town. The majority of the inhabitants are here Europeans, living in nice houses. The three principal streets are: Marine Street, leading from the port to the large market-place; Bab-a-Zun, leading through the gate of the same name to the country east of Algiers, and to the camps of Mustapha and Kuba ; and the street Bab-el-Wad, which likewise leads from the large market-place, in a western direction, to the gate Bab-el-Wad (water gate). These three streets are the only ones where carriages can pass, being just wide enough for two carriages.

Most of the houses are new; their juttings form vaulted arcades, which cover a continued row of neat trottoirs, in the style of the Rue Rivoli, in Paris, shielding the pas senger from sun and rain. A great number of dark alleys, which only allow a couple of persons to pass, intersect the three principal streets in all directions ; the greatest portion bears French names. The upper part of the town is dark, angular, and irregular. The narrow streets ascend so steeply, that every walk gives ample opportunity for climbing, most trying to elderly people. In rainy weather, it is impossible to descend the Citadel Street, which leads through this upper part, without incessant stumbling and falling. A visit to the elevated por tion of Algiers, which is occupied almost exclusively by natives, proves at such times a serious expedition.

Yet, if we get familiar with the climate of Algiers, we also soon grow reconciled to the narrowness of its streets which are rarely more than four feet in width. In summer, when the sun's rays are glowingly reflected from the rocks, and in winter, when the floods of rain wash the stones, one always walks cool and dry over the town, shielded from heat and wet by the architecture of the houses, as the upper storeys of the buildings project over the lower floors, in the same way, and even more than we see in the ancient English towns. No doubt, this style makes the streets dark, but yields shade and cover, which is of especial benefit in this latitude to all persons inclined to intermittent fevers. All the older houses are built in the well-known Moorish style; though not so grand as in the Alhambra and other ancient Moorish buildings in Southern Spain ; yet, its form is attractive and pleasing.

The outside of these houses is very plain, in fact, in streets so narrow, a stately fagade, if it existed, could not be viewed ; besides, they have only small grated holes for windows. But inside, they strike by their architecture; which is as comfort able and nice, as it is magnificent and dazzling. A hall sup ported by columns leads to a stair, the walls of which are covered with gaudy glazed pottery; passing this, we get into the hall within, a square usually paved with marble, and enclosed by a colonnade which admits the light from above. Another stair leads to an upper colonnade, which, like the lower, runs all round the hall, and conducts to four apartments. In wealthier houses there is a fountain, or a basin for bathing, or a grove of orange trees in the middle of the hall, which, as mentioned, receives the light from above; and as the Moors had no glass-ceiling, the rain freely fell into the hall, which certainly made the apartments often damp.

Many French had constructed glass-roofs, which prevent this nuisance, yet likewise deprive the hall of its airy freshness. Such is the construction of all the houses in Algiers. The mansion of the wealthy differs from the abode of the poor only in size, and the sumptuousness of the ornamental arrangements. The floors and the columns are, with the former, commonly of white marble; large plates of gaudy glazed pottery cover the walls and passages, and contribute no less to the ornament than to the cool ness of the building. As to the rest, the abodes are all alike in their furniture, and in the simplicity of implements. Some carpets or mats plaited of palm-leaves, a couple of prettily-carved, gaily painted and gilded chests, often likewise vases with rose water, form almost the entire furniture of a Moorish room.

Chairs are unknown to the inhabitants ; they always take their seats on the covering of the floor, crossing their legs. Regular kitchens are not to be found in the house; the dishes are warmed in the court-yard on a moveable iron hearth. The larder contains the curious earthen cooking utensils, gigantic kegs for butter, &c. The houses are generally kept very clean; nothing but over whelming povert}* reconciles itself to filth. Every building has only two storeys, distributed in exactly the same way ; the roof is flat, and surrounded by a parapet, forming airy terraces, on which the inhabitants used to walk about after sunset. The Moorish ladies "likewise show themselves here in their magnificent attire, commonly without veil, but spying carefully whether any man's eye watches them from the neighbouring terrace.

They, therefore, always carry a muslin handkerchief in their hand during these evening walks, instantly to cover their face if any curious look should be turned towards them. Nevertheless, this affectation of modesty, sanctified by the ancient custom of the country, is a little less strictly observed by them towards Euro peans than with natives. Not as if they felt a peculiar predilec tion for us, but because they know that the Christian women are allowed to show themselves before the eye of man without in fringing the rules of custom, or lowering themselves in our esti mation. It would also be difficult for a Moorish lady — if she does not choose altogether to give up her regular exercise on the terrace — to avoid the glance of curious eyes, as many Europeans live in the Moorish part of the town, and on mild evenings, steadily persevere in spying at the mysteries of the neighbour ing houses.

The Moorish architecture, if not as grand as the venerable Gothic, or the classical Greek style of the great monuments in Europe, yet, with all its imperfections, presents an attractive sight by its general effect, nearly in the same way as the pic turesque Moorish dress itself. The pleasant impression on the traveller is here yet heightened, hecause he scarcely expects it in a city so lately the abode of Corsairs. The interior of several buildings at Algiers — for instance, the Mansion-house or dwelling ofthe Governor, and the hall of justice — would, even in European capitals, allure those who delight in sights. In day-time, when a blue dazzling sky forms a vault over the colonnaded halls, when the veins of the marble paving, the complicated adornment of the porcelain walls, the curiously-sculptured columns, the horse shoe arches, and the peculiar carving of the doors, are lighted from above by the golden rays, then a Moorish house makes an impression similar to that of a bird of the tropical lands in rich brightness ; and the oddity of the form proves a3 little repulsive to our eye as an attractive fairy tale to the imagination of children.

There is nothing mysterious in these uncommon shapes, when permeated by a flood of bright sunshine. We enjoy wandering about the galleries with the solemn gait of an Easterner, now resting our cheek against the smooth and fresh marble wall, then again listening to the monotonous gurgling of the fountain. Among the remarkable buildings of Algiers, none is better known than the Citadel, the residence of the last Dey, which commands the whole of the city, since it is the most elevated edifice on the hill on whose ridge Algiers rises. It is a very large and strong fortress, with many apartments, courts, and shell proof cellars. Yet, as to beauty and elegance, neither the castle, nor the ancient palace of the Deys, where the princes of Algeria held their residence up to 1818, are superior to the other struc tures.

Though both are more spacious than the old barracks of the janissaries, they by no means equal them, or even some private Moorish houses, in wealth and magnificence. From a distance, the castle appears as a white irregular mass of buildings, and it is only by the enormous guns stretching their mouths through the loop-holes that we perceive it to be a fort. The French have connected it with the country by the erection of side-gates ; previously it had only one exit — namely, the gate which led to the " Citadel" Street. This gate is lofty enough for a man on horseback. It is of white marble, ornamented by an Arabic inscription, such as were sculptured over all the houses belonging to the Dey. Formerly a large wooden cage, filled with white doves, was placed at the side of the gate, and above it yawned the mouth of a very large gun, threatening the streets in case of riot.

Passing the gate, we are in sight of a dark vaulted passage, where the water of a fountain falls into a white marble basin. Having passed it, we perceive two alleys, one leading to the late abode of Hussein-Dey, the other to the powder magazine, and to the batteries whieh are pointed toward the city. By a gallery, next to the vaulted passage, we get into an oblong court yard, close to the large square colonnaded hall, which is sur rounded by the apartments of the late Dey. Magnificent lemon trees stood here formerly, and a large fountain spouted the water into a couple of ample white marble basins. The gallery at the south side of the hall is twice as wide as the others, and is supported by a double row of columns; it was used as the reception hall by Hussein-Dey, where he daily saw his officers, and publicly held his court.

Along the walls, benches with gold-embroidered velvet cushions were placed, on which the Dey and the members of his council used to take their seats. The walls were covered with porcelain, ornamented with very pretty drawings ; but now most of them are destroyed or injured, and the furniture of value — even the fine old-fashioned mirrors with gilded frames, the Eng lish clocks, the Moorish cushions — have all disappeared. Behind this gallery were the apartments of the Kasnaji, or first minister and the vaults of the state's treasure, rummaged in 1830 by the cunning treasure-seekers of the Seine, who fully well understood how to resuscitate Spanish piastres and Turkish gold from their centenary grave. The cash, amounting to fifty millions francs, was locked up in large iron boxes. Of the other treasures — jewels, gold and silver vases, and magnificent arms — a great portion was stolen, and in Algiers the pilfering is almost generally imputed to the most immediate attendants of General Bour mont, yet it was impossible to prove this charge, in the first floor, behind the hall, there are mostly small rooms, which were formerly inhabited by the household officers of Hussein- Dey.

The Prince occupied the upper storeys, connected with the first floor by a magnificent marble flight of stairs. In front of the Dey's apartments, we see an open gallery, with a view over the country and the sea. Hussein-Dey lived in the eastern portion of this floor; he inhabited four rooms, two of which were very spacious, decorated in the Oriental taste, but theycontained nothing remarkable. On the same side of the castle, there are yet three other rooms, two of which were filled with splendid arms and gar ments when the French took possession of the city ; the third room was the mint. Opposite to the apartments of the Dey were the rooms of his wives. Above the second terrace there are only small rooms, affording a wide view, spreading over the city, the country, and the sea. The Dey, never venturing to leave the castle, often used to walk here, looking down upon the city-, and watching what happened there.

From this very spot he saw likewise the French fleet approaching the coast, which was to put an end to his sway. At present the castle is turned into barracks, grog-shops, and store-houses; the ancient magnificence has almost disappeared from the residence of the Dey. In 1830, fifty guns of very heavy calibre were found here ; they were painted green on the outside, and their mouths red ; their car riages were massive and immoveable. The greater portion of these cannons still remain here ; some were carried to France, and put up as trophies in the Hotel des Invalides. Previous to 1818, the Deys occupied the large building whieh THE CITY OP ALGIERS. forms the southern fagade of the market-place. It is the highest, and, next to the castle, the most extensive building of the city ; but it is likewise deprived of its former riches.

It has been turned into barracks and a military store-house. The fortress called the " Emperor's Fort," beyond the city, on a hill rising 630 feet above the sea, is built of bricks, as are all the houses at Algiers. It got the name of the " Emperor's Fort" since the Emperor Charles V., in 1541, had his head-quarters on this hill, and erected here several fortifications. At the attack of the French in 1830, the greatest portion of the fort was blown up ; yet the outside walls remained, and the barracks in the inte rior have been restored. The fortress contains two large vaults for keeping the powder stores, and is defended by fifty Turkish guns in very bad repair. On the whole, the fortifications of the city on this side are much neglected, since an attack from the natives never was feared by the French, for they never have succeeded in taking even a block-house; the slightest trench defended by a few cannons always proved an invincible obstacle to the Arabs as well as to the Kabyles.

Towards the sea, Algiers is strongly fortified. In the year 1816, the bold Lord Exmouth could yet venture to sail into the port, and to anchor so close to the pier that his bowsprit almost touched the houses. At present, even a strong fleet would dearly pay for such boldness, as, since 1816, very massive fortifications, well supplied with cannons, have been erected round the bay. In the west stands the fort, named by the French, Fort de Vingt quatre-heures; in the east, the fort Bab-a-Zun. Other fortifications were erected all along the gulf, from Cape Caxines to Cape Matifu. At the Cape Caxines there are the " Forts de la Pointe Pescade." Two hours eastward from Algiers, on a high plateau, the camp Kuba is built, the artillery of which reaches far into the gulf. Then we find the fortified " Maison Carree," and farther east we see the Fort de l'Eau, whose guard is intrusted to the Aribes; and lastly, the Fort Matifu, which is now quite abandoned.

Amongst the European buildings at Algiers, one only is worth mentioning ; it is the abode of Mr. Latour du Pin, a rich officer of the general staff, which forms the western fagade of the large market-place. The building cost about one million of francs, and it would prove an ornament even to a European capital. In the street Bab-a-Zun there is a new structure, in half Moorish, half European style. It contains the college, the library, and the Protestant chapel, and owes its existence to the excellent Civil Intendant Bresson, an enlightened man of noble character, who, in spite of the innumerable troubles of his position, yet remained several years in Algiers, making it his task to raise a new world in Africa by education. He persisted in his efforts, though, with his aptitude for business and his oratorical talent, he might have expected a much more brilliant career in France.

The exterior of the building which he founded is somewhat gaudy, and not in the best taste, but nothing has been spared for its interior arrangement and comfort. The college has separate halls for every class of scholars, who are taught both in French and in Arabic. Chil dren of the most different nations — Germans, Spaniards, Moors, and Negroes — here write their exercises in common with Parisian boys. The library comprises two large halls, ornamented with marble. It contains many Arabic manuscripts, some of them captured in the house of Ben-Aissa, and in the different mosques of Constantine. Previous to the French conquest, Algiers had ten large and fifty small mosques. Now these are reduced to one-half of the number. Many have been pulled down to enlarge the streets, or to make room for houses.

This was likewise the fate of the most splendid temple of Algiers, which stood on the market-place. The ornamental portions of it, particularly the white marble columns, were partly preserved, and used for the improvement of the large mosque in the Rue de la Marine. One of the mosques has been turned into a theatre, another became a store-house for hay, a third is a barrack. The French government has been often accused of bad policy for such wanton desecration of the Mohammedan houses of worship, and certainly this was one of B THE CITY OF ALGIERS. the measures which the natives could least forget or pardon in their new rulers. But, on the other side, the number of mosques was much too large for the population. The Turks were banished from the city ; many Moors emigrated to the East or other parts of Barbary; and the number of those anxious to visit the mosques decreased daily, whilst the army and the first settlers were in great want of convenient shelter.

Store-houses, barracks, hospitals, had to be established, and private persons, of course, could not be turned out of their houses. The government, there fore, may certainly find excuses for their severely-censured mea sures, though we cannot but regret that, by this violation of religious feelings, so many natives have been estranged from the new lords of the country. The finest work of architecture undertaken by the French government was the restoration of a large mosque in the Rue de la Marine, for which the Duke of Nemours laid the eornerstone in 1836. All the columns and marble ornaments which had been preserved from the buildings pulled down were lavished on this structure, which exhibits now a long fagade of white marble columns. But the interior is not grand. A long portico, not above twenty-five feet high, surrounds several courts, where colossal orange-trees and cypresses protect a marble basin from the rays of the sun by the screen of their unfading green leaves.

At this fountain the pious Mohammedans wash their hands, feet, and faces, with the utmost care, whenever they step in or out. The floor of the temple is covered with velvet carpets of different colours, richer around the sanctuary, which consists of an arched niche, in which the Mufti, Imam, or Marabut, says the prayer. Since the French rule in Algiers, the entrance into the mosques is no longer prohibited to Christians; they only must, like the Mo hammedans, take off their shoes before the gate— the sacred carpet may only be trodden by bare feet. Previous to 1830, every Chris tian who entered a mosque was punished with death, and the floor of the mosque had to be carefully washed, and the walls freshly painted; for they were deemed to have been desecrated by the presence of a Christian. But now the Mohammedans in the seaport towns of Algeria have grown accustomed to see Frenchmen in their temples.

A closer acquaintance with the infidels, under cir cumstances totally different from before, has greatly conciliated them to their antagonists in faith, and they do not now consider the presence of Christians as desecrating their places of worship. The calm and freshness pervading the wide colonnades of the large mosque make it a most attractive place of refuge during the hot months. I often remained there for hours, leaning against a column, and watching the single worshippers at day-time, or their more numerous groups at the evening prayers. There were among them most interesting countenances — many an old, melancholy, silver-haired Moor, longing for the promised blessings beyond this world; beside him sat his grandchild, a pretty rosy cheeked boy, in whose heart, to tell by his appearance, fanaticism had not yet sprung up.

Then again, it was so pleasant to wander about in tbe interior courts, under the orange-tree's, and to indulge in dreamy thoughts at the rippling fountain. Every Mohammedan place of worship has a slender minaret, commonly of a rectangular form, the summit of which is adorned by the crescent. On its top the tower is surrounded by a gallery, from whence the Muezzin calls the faithful to prayer. A wooden pole rises above that gallery, on which a white flag is reared as the signal for prayers. Another handsome inosque stands at the entrance of the Rue de la Marine, on the large place. It is painted shiningly white, much nicer and cleaner than any other building. A cupola rises above the terrace, and above the cupola a minaret, covered with slabs of porcelain of curious form and design. A third remark able mosque stands in the Rue de la Porte Neuve, not distinguished by size, but by a pomp and elegance in its interior far superior to all the other buildings.

Its form is almost round. An artisti cally worked column supports the cupola, the vault of which is decorated with golden ornaments and slabs of porcelain. The side of the holy niche, the place of the Imam, is ornamented by a pulpit of white marble. The balustrade of the pulpit-stairs, and THE CITY OF ALGIERS. the marble canopy above the preacher, are of the most exquisite workmanship, but they probably were worked by Italians. Close to the gate Bab-a-Zun, stands a very small mosque, rarely opened ; but its splendour is to be perceived through a grated air-hole. Whilst in most of the mosques magnificence is displayed in the marble floors only, and the walls are white and bare, — in that small mosque, the walls, ceiling, and floors, are all richly decorated with velvet, and silk interwoven with gold.

Above the niche, verses of the Koran are sculptured with orna mental letters. In the niche itself stands a kind of altar of marble, almost bearing the form of a sarcophagus, covered with a quantity of flags, which are heavy with resplendent embroideries and of curious forms ; it is the monument of the most celebrated Prince of this Corsair republic, Hayraddin Barbarossa, who defeated the expedition of Charles V., in 1541. The Roman Catholic Church, the cathedral of Algiers, was formerly a mosque. It is situated in the upper part of the Divan Street ; and though not larger than the two mosques in the Rue de la Marine, its style of building is much purer and grander. Even the finest of the mosques are adorned only with low colonnades; but in the cathedral, columns of fifty feet support the cupola, which gets its light from above through stained glass.

The altar is on the north side, decorated by a picture of the Virgin, which has been bestowed on this church by the Pope; nevertheless above the picture we still see the sentences of the Koran in interlaced Arabic characters, proclaiming that there is only one God and Mohammed his Prophet. That these sen tences, though they form a most elegant ornament of arabesques, should he allowed to remain in a Christian temple is rather strange ; in fact, not only are they shocking to the Christian, but the Mohammedan also would rather see them effaced than placed above the image of a deified female. And yet more strange than the interior arrangement, appeared to me the service and the assembly in the cathedral; which indeed was composed of the most incongruous elements. The mass is here almost a military spectacle ; the soldiers are drilled for it.

A gay martial music resounds in the building whilst the priest mumbles his Latin formulas; the noise of twenty drums thunders through the hall as soon as the sacristan rings the bell ; the soldiers standing in a square before the altar, present the musket at the command of their officer, and bend, at the same time, their right knee, and bow their heads to the ground, whilst the thundering march ofthe drums lasts until the priest has finished the Lord's Prayer. Then the regimental music plays pieces of Auber's and Meyerbeer's Operas; the priest raises the host and presents it to the congregation, amongst which some people have prayed, many have listened to the music, others again have turned their attention to the pious young Spanish ladies; and now, — all are talking and walking about the wide hall as if it were a public promenade.

The Protestant hall of worship is in the New Library building, a plain apartment, where a chair stands for the pulpit, and a table for the altar. Every Sunday evening the usual service of the Calvinist Church is held here ; song, sermon, and once a month the communion. Whilst I was at Algiers two Protestant clergy men were there, who, at the same time, had the spiritual care of the country people, especially of the Germans, in the village Deli Ibrahim, many of whom had emigrated from Wurtemberg. In spite of the religious indifference predominant in Algiers, the Protestant service was always numerously attended; and in this congregation, partly composed of Roman Catholics, I always noticed pious devotion and respectful silence. The eight synagogues here, stand all in the lower part of the town.