Notes and extracts in illustration of a Slight Sketch of Universal History

Front matter

NOTES AND EXTRACTS is illustration or A SLIGHT SKETCH OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BY R. SIMPSON. FEINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION. GTJILDIY RD : JOSEPH BILLING A/D SONS, PRINTERS. NOTES AND EXTRACTS IN ILLUSTRATION OF A SLIGHT SKETCH OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BY R. SIMPSON. PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION. GUILDFORD : JOSEPH BILLING AND SONS, PRINTER* 1880. PEEFACE. Grote and Dean Stanley have furnished the groundwork of the following compilation. Many extracts are also given from Keble's Version of the Psalms of David. At the end of the volume the reader will find a few remarks on the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem, in which some use has been made of the pretty little volume published this year by the Palestine Exploration Society, entitled ' Our Work in Palestine.' We commend this Society's appeal for assistance to the kind consideration of our readers.

N.B. — The mode of numbering the pages is with reference to ' A Slight Sketch of Universal History,' which is prefixed to some of the copies. 13, Portland Place, Lower Clapton. April, 1873. Page 9. "This is the departure of the Israelites from Egypt; which is said lo have taken place about 1,500 years previous to the commencement of the Christian era." The chronology of Exodus involves two questions, — the duration of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, and the date of their departure. So far as regards the direct state ments in the Hebrew text, the answers to both questions are positive and unambiguous. Exodus xii. 40 gives 430 years for the sojourn; Genesis xv. 13 gives 400 years for the whole or the greater portion of the same period. Again, 1 Kings vi. 1 fixes the Exodus at 480 years before the building of the Temple in the fourth year of Solomon's reign.

This would settle the date within a few years, about 1490 b.c. — Commentary. Page 10. " Another hero of the dark ages of Athens is Theseus." From Kekrops down to Theseus (says Thucydides) there were many different cities in Attica, each of them auto nomous and self-governing, with its own prytaneium and its own archons ; and it was only on occasions of some common daDger that these distinct communities took counsel together under the authority of the Athenian kings, whose city at that time comprised merely the holy rock of Athene on the plain (afterwards so conspicuous as the acropolis of the enlarged Athens), together with a narrow area under it on the southern side. It was Theseus (he states) who effected that great revolution whereby the whole of Attica was consolidated into one government, all the local magis tracies and councils being made to centre in the prytaneium and senate of Athens.

Chapter I

the captivity only fortified and strengthened the city of Rameses then already existing, and so fitted it to be a strong treasure city. The name Rameses became famous in after times from the exploits of Rameses IL, a king of the nine teenth dynasty ; but he was of too late a date to have given name to a city, either in the time of Joseph or even at the time of the Exodus. — Commentary. Page 26. As to the fondness of the Egyptians for Trees. — The Locust Plague. Not only the leaves, but the branches, and even the wood, are attacked aud devoured (Le. by locusts). Pliny says (xi. 29), " Omnia niorsu erodentes et fores quoque tectorum." The Egyptians were passionately fond of trees. In hieroglyphics one of the most ancient names of Egypt is "the Land of the Sycamore." The widow of Thothmes IL, a few years after his death, imported a large number of trees from Arabia Felix ; a singular coincidence, if, as seems probable, that was the date of the Exodus. — Com mentary.

Page 26, As to the number of Chariots which pursued the Israelites, and the number possessed by Egypt in the time of Rameses II. The Egyptian army comprised large numbers of chariots, each drawn by two horses, with two men, one bearing the shield and driving, the other fully armed. The horses were thorough-bred, renowned for strength and spirit. Chariots are first represented on the monuments of the eighteenth dynasty. They were used by Amosis I. in the expedition against the shepherd kings, by Thothmes I. against Syria and Mesopotamia. Under Thothmes III. we have the record of a battle at Megiddo, in which 897 war chariots were captured from the confederated forces of northern Palestine and Syria. By " all the chariots of Egypt " we are to understand all that were stationed in Lower Egypt, most of them probably at Rameses and other frontier garrisons near the head quarters of Pharaoh.

According to Diodorus Siculus (i. 54) the Egyptians had 27,000 chariots in the time of Rameses II. — Commentary. Page 28. As to the Last King of Egypt before Cambyses conquered that country. The last king of Egypt before the Persian conquest of that country was Amasis, who reigned forty-four years in great prosperity, from 570 to 526 B.C. His reign closed just six months before the Persians conquered Egypt. He employed foreign mercenary soldiers from Greece in addi tion to the native Egyptian warrior caste. He greatly favoured the Greeks, and allowed them to establish a factory in Egypt for their commerce, similar, in great degree, to the English factories in China and formerly in India. He was a friend of Crœsus of Lydia. " Egypt enjoyed under him a degree of power abroad and prosperity at home (the river having been abundant in its overflowing) which was the more tenaciously remembered on account of the period of disaster and subjugation immediately following his death.

And his contributions, in architecture and sculpture, to the temples of Sais and Memphis were on a scale of vast ness surpassing everything before known in Lower Egypt." — Grote. Page 28. As to the use of Wine and Beer by the Egyptians. Herodotus denies the existence of vines in ancient Egypt, and says that the Egyptian wine was made of barley. Yet Herodotus himself and Diodorus identify Osiris with the Greek Bacchus, the discoverer of the vine. But, more over, it now appears from the monuments that both the cultivation of grapes and the art of making wine were well known in Egypt from the time of the pyramids. Wine was universally used by the rich throughout Egypt, and beer supplied its place at the tables of the poor, not because " they had no vines in the country, but because it was cheaper." — Commentary.

Page 28. As to Glass. It may be said that glass was known in the remotest ages, for Phœnicia and ancient Egypt were, in the time of Moses, renowned for their innumerable productions in vitrified sand. — P. Lacroix. , Page 29. The later Chaldæans and Babylonians spoke a Semitic language, but the most ancient Babylonian inscriptions show that the earliest inhabitants spoke a Turanian or Cushite tongue, and were therefore of the same race as the Ethiopians and southern Arabians. Moreover, the most ancient traditions bring the first colonists of Babylon from the south. Thus Belus, son of Poseidon and Libya, is said to have led a colony from Egypt into Babylonia, and there fixing his seat on the Euphrates, to have consecrated the priests called in Babylon Chaldæans. Nimrod is probably to be identified with Belus : but the word Belus itsfdf ( = Bel = Baal) is not so much a name as a title, meaning lord or master, and may have been given traditionally to the first founder of empire in the earth.

The words " beginning of his kingdom " may signify that Babel was the first, or possibly that it was the chief city founded by N imrod. — Commentary. Page 29. Cush. This is a word of wide extent. It generally belongs either to Arabia or to Ethiopia. From Gen. x. 7 sqq. it will appear how widely the sons of Cush spread forth. Their first settlement appears to have been in Arabia. Nimrod founded the kingdom of Babylon. Afterwards they settled largely in Ethiopia. In the more ancient books of Scripture, the Asiatic Cush is more frequently, perhaps exclusively, intended. Later the name applies more commonly to African Cush, i. e. Ethiopia. — Com mentary. Page 30. The history of his attack on Chedorlaomer, which follows, gives us a specimen of the view which would be taken of him by the external world.

The invasion was clearly another northern immigration or foray, for the chiefs or kings were of Shinar (Babylonia), Ellasar (Assyria?), Elam (Persia), &c. That it was not the first is evident from the vassalage of the kings of the cities of the plain, and it extended far to the south over a wide tract of country. Abram appears here as the head of a small confederacy of chiefs, powerful enough to venture on a long pursuit to the head of the valley of the Jordan, to attack with success a large force, and not only to rescue Lot, but to roll back for a time the stream of northern immigration. — Dictionary of the Bible. Page 30. " And it came to pass in the days of Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of nations, that these made war with Bera king of Sodom, and with Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, and Shemeber king of Zeboim, and the king of Bela, which is Zoar.

All these were joined together in the vale of Siddim, which is the Salt Sea. Twelve years they served Chedorlaomer, and in the thirteenth year they rebelled. And in the fourteenth year came Chedorlaomer, NOTES TO

Chapter II

and the kings that were with him, and smote the[Rephaims in Ashteroth Karnaim, and the Zuzims in Ham, and the Emims in Shaveh Kiriathaim, and the Horites in their mount Seir, unto El-paran, which is byjthe wilderness. And they returned and came to En-mishpat, which is Kadesh, and smote all the country of the Amalekites, and also the Amorites, that dwelt in Hazezon-tamar. And there went out the king of Sodom, and the king of Gomorrah, and the king of . Admah, and the king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela (the same is Zoar) ; and they joined battle with them in the vale of Siddim ; with Chedorlaomer the king of Elam, and with Tidal king of nations, and Amraphel king of Shinar, and Arioch king of Ellasar ; four kings with five. And the vale of Siddim was full of slime pits ; and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, and fell there ; and they that remained fled to the mountain.

And they took all the goods of Sodom and Gomorrah, and all their victuals, and went their way. And they took Lot, Abram's brother's son, who dwelt in Sodom, and his goods, and departed. And there came one that had escaped, and told Abram the Hebrew ; for he dwelt in the plain of Mamre the Amorite, brother of Eshcol, and brother of Aner ; and these were confederate with Abram. Andjwhen Abram heard that his brother was taken captive, he armed his trained servants, born in his own house, three hundred and eighteen, and pursued them unto Dan. And he divided himself against them, he and his servants, by night, and smote them, and pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus. And he brought back all the goods, and also brought again his brother Lot, and his goods, and the women also, and the people.

And the king of Sodom went out to meet him after his return from the slaughter of Chedorlaomer, and of the kings that were with him, at the valley of Shaveh, which is the king's dale. NOTES TO

CHAPTER II.

And Melchisedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine : and he was the priest of the most high God. And he blessed him, and said, Blessed be Abram of the most high God, possessor of heaven and earth : and blessed be the most high God, which hath delivered thine enemies into thy hand. And he gave him tithes of all. And the king of Sodom said unto Abram, Give me the persons, and take the goods to thyself. And Abram said to the king of Sodom, I have lift up mine hand unto the Lord, the most high God, the possessor of heaven and earth, that I will not take from a thread even to a shoe latchet, and that I will not take any thing that is thine, lest thou shouldest say, I have made Abram rich : save only that which the young men have eaten, and the portion of the men which went with me, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre ; let them take their portion." — Gen. xiv.

Page 31. [The name of this monarch is variously spelt. In the British Museum it is given Asshur-nazirpal (Asshur protects his son). In the text it stands Asshur-idauni-pal. It is sometimes given Asshurbanipal. But the most useful form is probably the most correct, — that is, Asshur-nazirpal,- — as this serves to distinguish him from Asshurbanipal who reigned two hundred years later, from B.C. 667 to 64 • Asshur was the principal god of the Assyrians.] "Origi nally the god Asshur was the great progenitor of the race, — Asshur, the son of Shem, deified." — Rawlinson. As a specimen of the religious records, we may cite a prayer to God by Asshurbanipal (884 b.c), long before Greek thought historically developed itself, or its philosophy arose, and which is thus given on a tablet (marked K 13 in the British Museum Series).

" May the look of pity that shines in thine eternal face dispel my griefs. " May I never feel the anger and wrath of the God. " May my omissions and my sins be wiped out. " May I find reconciliation with him, for I am the servant of his power, the adorer of the great Gods, " May thy powerful face come to help me ; may it shine like heaven, and bless me with happiness and abundance of riches. " May it bring forth in abundance, like the earth, happiness and every sort of good." — Charles Harrison. Page 35. Ihe Foundation of Tarsus by Sennacherib. Tarsus was always regarded by the Greeks as an Assyrian town, and though they give different accounts of the time of its foundation, their disagreement in this respect does not invalidate their evidence as to the main fact itself, which is intrinsically probable.

The evidence of Polyhistor and Abydenus as to the date of the foundation, representing, as it must, the testimony of Berosus upon the point, is to be preferred ; and we may accept it as a fact, beyond all reason able doubt, that the native city of St. Paul derived its origin from the antagonist of Hezekiah. — Rawlinson. Page 37. Herodotus has left us valuable statements respecting the Scythian people, dominion, and manners, as they stood in his day. His territory called Scythia is a square area, twenty days' journey, or 4000 stadia (somewhat less than 500 English miles), in each direction; bounded by the Danube (the course of which river he conceives in a direction from N.w. to S.E.), the Euxine, and the Palus Mæotis with the River Tanais, on three sides respectively ; and on the fourth or north side by the nations called Agathyrsi, Neuri, Androphagi, and Melanchlæni.

However imperfect his idea of the figure of this territory may be found if we compare it with a good modern map, the limits which he gives us are beyond all dispute: from the Lower Danube and the mountains eastward of Transylvania to the Lower Tanais, the whole area was either occupied by or subject to the Scythians. And this name comprised tribes differing materially in habits and civilization. The great mass of the people who bore it, strictly nomadic in their habits — neither sowing nor planting, but living only on food derived from animals, especially mares' milk and cheese — moved from place to place, carrying their families in waggons covered with wicker and leather, themselves always on horseback, with their flocks and herds, between the Borys thenes and the Palus Mæotis. They hardly even reached so far westward as the Borysthenes, since a river (not easily identified), which Herodotus calls Pantikapes, flowing into the Borysthenes from the eastward, formed their boundary.

These nomads were the genuine Scythians, possessing the marked attributes of the race, and including among their number the Regal Scythians, — hordes so much more popu lous and more effective in war than the rest, as to maintain undisputed ascendancy, and account all other Scythians no better than their slaves. " But, besides these nomads, there were also agricultural Scythians, with fixed abodes, living more or less upon bread, and raising corn for expor tation, along the banks of the Borysthenes and the Hypanis." Grote. Page 37. The descendants of Gomer have accordingly been gene rally identified with the Celtic race called in the time of 10—2 Homer Cimmerii, who are first known as inhabiting the Chersonesus Taurica, which still retains the name Crimea. The relation of Gomer to Magog and Madai corresponds with the original juxtaposition of the Cimmerians to the Scythians and Medes, the Cimmerians dwelling first on the confines of Asia and Europe.

Being driven thence by the Scythians in the reign of Cyaxares, they made an irruption into Asia Minor, from which they were driven back again by Alyattes. Their name, which then nearly disappears in Asia, is recognised again in the Cimbri, who occupied the Cimbrian Chersonesus, and other parts of the north of Europe, and in the great Celtic tribe of Cymry, the ancient inhabitants of Britain and the present inhabitants of Wales. — Commentary. The Scythians formed for several centuries an important section of the Grecian contemporary world. Their name, unnoticed by Homer, occurs for the first time in the Hesiodic poems. When the Homeric Zeus in the Iliad turns his eye away from Troy towards Thrace, he sees, besides the Thracians and Mysians, other tribes whose names cannot be made out, but whom the poet knows as milk-eaters and mare-milkers ; and the same characteristic attributes, coupled with that of " having waggons for their dwelling-houses," appear in Hesiod connected with the name of the Scythians. — Grote.

But it is a fact perfectly within the range of historical analogy, that accidental aggregations of number, development of aggressive spirit, or failure in the means of sub sistence, among the nomadic tribes of the Asiatic plains, have brought on the civilized nations of southern Europe calamitous invasions, of which the prime moving cause was remote and unknown. Sometimes a weaker tribe, flying before a stronger, has been in this manner precipitated upon the territory of a richer and less military population ; so that an impulse originating in the distant plains of central Tartary has been propagated until it reached the southern extremity of Europe, through successive intermediate tribes, — a phenomenon especially exhibited during the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era, in the declining years of the Roman Empire.

A pressure so transmitted onward is said to have brought down the Cimmerians and Scythians upon the more southerly regions of Asia. — Grote. Page 38. The statement of Josephus, that the descendants of Magog were the Scythians, is generally accepted as true. Herodotus relates their descent upon Media and Egypt, till they were surprised and cut off at a feast by Cyaxares. From their intermixture with the Medes, the Sarmatians appear to have arisen, and from them the Russians. — Commentary. Page 39. In the traditions of the magnificent city of Babylon we also find figured tapestry delineating the mysteries of religion, and handing down to us the recollection of historical incidents. The famous tapestries which were sold in the time of Metellus Scipio for 800,000 sesterces (about 165,000 francs), and a hundred years later were purchased for the exorbitant sum of 2,000,000 sesterces (about 412,000 francs) by Nero, to place on his festive couches, were of Babylonian workman ship. — Paul Lacroix.

Page 40. Greece proper lies between the 36th and 40th parallels of north latitude, and between the 21st and 26th degrees of east longitude. Its greatest length, from Mount Olympus to Cape Tænarus, may be stated at 250 English miles ; its greatest breadth, from the western coast of Akarnania to Marathon in Attica, at 180 miles; and the distance eastward from Ambrakia, across Pindus to the Magnesian mountain Homole and the mouth of the Peneius, is about 120 miles. Altogether, its area is somewhat less than that of Portugal. In regard, however, to all attempts at determining the exact limits of Greece proper, we may remark, first, that these limits seem not to have been very precisely defined even among the Greeks themselves ; and next, that so large a proportion of the Hellenes were distributed among islands and colonies, and so much of their influence upon the world in general produced through their colonies, as to render the extent of their original domicile a matter of comparatively little moment to verify. — Grote.

Page 40. The history of Greece falls most naturally into six com partments, of which the first may be looked at as a period of preparation for the five following, which exhaust the free life of collective Hellas. Period i. From 776 b.c. to 560 B.C., the accession of Peisistratus at Athens and of Crœsus in Lydia. ii. From the accession of Peisistratus and Crœsus to the repulse of Xerxes from Greece. iii. From the repulse of Xerxes to the close of the Peloponnesian War and overthrow of Athens. iv. From the close of the Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Leuctra. v. From the Battle of Leuctra to that of Chæroneia. vi. From the Battle of Chæroneia to the end of the generation of Alexander. — Grote. The Foundation of the Temple of Delphi. The foundation of the temple of Delphi itself reaches far beyond all historical knowledge, forming one of the aboriginal institutions of Hellas.

It is a sanctified and wealthy place even in the Iliad. The legislation of Lycurgus at Sparta is introduced under its auspices ; and the earliest Grecian colonies, those of Sicily and Italy in the eighth century B.C., are established in consonance with its mandate. Delphi and Dodona appear, in the most ancient circumstances of Greece, as universally venerated oracles and sanctuaries. And Delphi not only receives honours and donations, but also answers questions, from Lydians, Phrygians, Etruscans, Eomans, etc. : it is not exclusively Hellenic. — Grote. Page 40. Whence the Greeks originally sprung. From Javan was " Ionia and the whole Hellenic people." In Daniel, Alexander is called king of Javan ; and in Joel " the sons of the Javanites " are put for the Grecians. Greece is called Ionia in Egyptian hieroglyphics, and Yuna in a cuneiform inscription at Persepolis.

The Ionians were 1IL the most eastern of the Hellenic races, and so were the best known to the Asiatics. The course of migration had evidently been from Ionia to Attica and other parts of Greece. — Commentary. [" All the Greek races (pure) are supposed to be descended from a patriarch named Hellen; thus, Japhet, Javan, Elishah. The last named is identified by some with Hellas, the country, or Hellen, the patriarch of Greece."] Page 40. The Greek Tradition of the Deluge. Deucalion is important in Grecian mythical narrative under two points of view : first, he is the person specially saved at the time of the general deluge ; next, he is the father of Hellen, the great eponym of the Hellenic race. At least, this was the more current story, though there were other statements, which made Hellen the son of Zeus. ["This Greek tradition, therefore, leaves out Japhet and Javan, and makes Deucalion — i.e. Noah — the immediate progenitor of Hellen."] Page 40.

Corinth. Even amidst the scanty information which has reached us, we trace the marks of considerable maritime energy and commerce among the Corinthians as far back as the eighth century B.C. The foundation of Korkyra and Syracuse, in the eleventh Olympiad, or 734 B.C. (of which I shall speak further in connection with Grecian colonization generally), by expeditions from Corinth, affords a good proof that they knew how to turn to account the excellent situation which con nected them with the sea on both sides of Peloponnesus ; and Thucydides, while he notices them as the chief liberators of the sea, in early times, from pirates, also tells us that the first great improvement in ship-building — the construction of the trireme, a ship of war, with a full deck and triple banks for the rowers— was the fruit of Corinthian ingenuity.

It was in the year 703 B.C. that the Corinthian Ameinokles built four triremes for the Samians, the first which those islanders had ever possessed. — Grote. Page 41. What are called the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games — the four most conspicuous amidst many others analogous — were in reality great religious festivals ; for the gods then gave their special sanction, name, and presence, to recreative meetings ; the closest association then prevailed between the feelings of common worship and the sympathy in common amusement. Though this associa tion is now no longer recognised, it is nevertheless essential that we should keep it fully before us if we desire to under stand the life and proceedings ofthe Greeks. To Herodotus and his contemporaries these great festivals, then frequented by crowds from every part of Greece, were of overwhelming importance and interest ; yet they had once been purely local, attracting no visitors, except from a very narrow neighbourhood. — Grote.

Difference between the Landsman and the Mariner. Certain it is that a great difference of character existed be tween those Greeks who mingled much in maritime affairs and those who did not. The Arcadian may stand as a type of the pure Grecian landsman, with his rustic and illiterate habits, his diet of sweet chestnuts, barley cakes, and pork (as contrasted with the fish which formed the chief seasoning for the bread of an Athenian), his superior courage and endurance, his reverence for Lacedæmonian headship as an old and customary influence, his sterility of intellect and imagination as well as his slackness in enterprise, his unchangeable rudeness of relations with the gods, which led him to scourge and prick Pan if he came back empty-handed from the chase : while the inhabitant of Phokæa or Miletus exemplifies the Grecian mariner, eager in search of gain, active, skilful, and daring at sea, but inferior in steadfast bravery on land ; more excitable in imagination, as well as more mutable in character ; full of pomp and expense in religious manifestations towards the Ephesian Artemis or the Apollo of Branchidæ ; with a mind more open to the varieties of Grecian energy, and to the refining influences of Grecian civilization.

The Pelopon nesians generally, and the Lacedæmonians in particular, approached to the Arcadian type ; while the Athenians of the fifth century B.C. stood foremost in the other, superadding to it, however, a delicacy of taste, and a predominance of intellectual sympathy and enjoyment, which seems to have been peculiar to themselves. The configuration of the Grecian territory, so like in many respects to that of Switzerland, produced two effects of great moment upon the character and history of the people. In the first place, it materially strengthened their powers of defence. . . . But, in the next place, while it tended to protect each section of Greeks from being conquered, it also kept them politically disunited, and perpetuated their separate autonomy. It fostered that powerful principle of repulsion, which disposed even the smallest township to constitute itself a political unit apart from the rest, and to resist all idea of coalescence with others, either amicable or compulsory. — Grote.

Page 41. The Sacred Games. We are thus enabled partially to trace the steps by which, during the two centuries succeeding 776 B.C., the festival of the Olympic Zeus, in the Pisatid, gradually passed from a local to a national character, and acquired an attractive force capable of bringing together into temporary union the dis persed fragments of Hellas, from Marseilles to Trebizonde. In this important function it did not long stand alone. During the sixth century B.C. three other festivals, at first local, became successively nationalized, — the Pythia near Delphi, the Isthmia near Corinth, the Nemea near Kleonae, between Sikyon and Argos. These four, all in or near Peloponnesus, and one of which occurred in each year, formed the Period, or cycle of sacred games, and those who had gained prizes at all the four received the enviable designation of Periodonikes.

The honours paid to Olympic victors, on their return to their native city, were prodigious even in the sixth century B.C., and became even more extravagant after wards. We may remark, that in the Olympic games alone, the oldest as well as the most illustrious of the four, the musical and intellectual element was wanting : all the three more recent Agones included crowns for exercises of music and poetry, along with gymnastics, chariots, and horses. Sparta seems to have formed an exception to the remaining states : her festivals were for herself alone ; and her general rudeness towards other Greeks was not materially softened even at the Karneia and Hyakinthia or Gymnopaediae. On the other hand, the Attic Dionysia were gradually exalted, from their original rude spontaneous outburst of village feeling in thankfulness to the god, followed by song, dance, and revelry of various kinds, into costly and diversified performances, first by a trained chorus, next by actors superadded to it ; and the dramatic compositions thus produced, as they embodied the perfection of Grecian art, so they were eminently calculated to invite a Pan-Hellenic audience, and to encourage the sentiment of Hellenic unity.