Physical Geography of the Holy Land ... A supplement to the late author's Biblical Researches in Palestine, etc

Front matter

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. BY EDWARD ROBINSONj.D. D. LL.D., PROFESSOR OP BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, NE"W YORK. A SUPPLEMENT TO THE LATE AUTHOR'S BIBLICAL RESEARCHES IN PALESTINE. THE MAPS OP THE LATER BIBLICAL RESEARCHES WILL SERVE FOR THIS WORK. BOSTON : PUBLISHED BY CROCKER AND BREWSTER, 51 WASHINGTON STREET. 1865. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by CEOCKEE & BEEWSTEE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. andovzk : STEREOTYPED AND PRINTED BT W. F. DRAPER.

Preface

. The late author of the following work has repeatedly stated, both in conversation and in writing, that he considered his books of travel as merely preparatory to a " systematic work on the Physical and Historical Geography of the Holy Land," to which he intended lo devote all his remaining energies. He commenced this labor very shortly after his first journey to the East, the results of which were communicated in the " Biblical Researches in Palestine," etc. The " Physical Geography of the Syrian Coast," which is given to the reader in the Appendix of the present volume, formed the commencement of the above work. The author's second journey, the motives for which are stated in the Introduction to his " Later Biblical Researches," caused an in terruption in this labor. When, some years later, he resumed it, it was on an entirely different and improved plan, of which he places before the reader an accurate statement in the " Introduction " that fol lows.

This plan he regarded as the best and most appropriate ; but he had also another more personal reason for adopting it. He felt that, on account of his increasing years, he might perhaps not be per mitted to finish the whole of the great work comprised in this design, and that in the case of his being taken away, he would rather leave to others those countries which he designates as "outlying" than

PREFACE.

. those of the " Central Region," which he had made for a quarter of a century the object of his indefatigable investigations, and for the thorough knowledge of which he could, as it were, be responsible as an eye-witness. This first part he had hoped to finish. But it was otherwise de creed above ; and a comparatively small portion — thorough and com plete in itself, however, without a missing note, without the omission of a single word to be subsequently inserted — is all that is left to the world from the hand of the earnest, faithful investigator. The Physical Geography was to be followed immediately by the Historical ; this again by the Topographical, arranged alphabetically. Lebanon and Sinai, similarly treated, were to have succeeded, as parts of the Central Region, this main portion.

Whatever fragments and sketches relating to this subject the author has left, the editor pre fers to withhold from the public, rather than give them, worked out by another hand, in the shape of patchwork, as it were, and there fore so decidedly in contradiction to the author's peculiar spirit. All that she does transmit to the world in the following pages, will, she trusts, be welcome ; partly as a systematic presentation of the geographical researches of the author in the Holy Land, partly as a Supplement to his former works. The maps of the Later Biblical Researches will serve for this book. Only the author himself could have furnished before its pub lication the materials for such improvements as the appearance of this work may call forth. Th. R. New Tore, Mat, 1864. CONTENTS.

Introduction

. Palestine the central point of Biblical Geography, 1. Relations of the He brew people to Jehovah, 1, 2. World-wide influence, 1, 2. Position and isola tion of Palestine, 2. Its remarkable feature, the great longitudinal valley, 2. Character of its sides, 2. Depression, 2. Assumed divisions of the region, 3. Northern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine proper, Sinai, etc., 3. First Volume: Palestine with Lebanon and Sinai, 3. These regions visited by the author, 3. Second Volume: Outlying Regions, 4. Northern Syria ; Ar menia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia; Arabia, Ethiopia, Egypt; Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, 4. Relations of these countries to the Old and New Testaments, 4; and to Central Palestine, 5. Sources. The Bible, 0. Its method, 6. Works of Josephus, C, 17. Native names of places, a national tradition, 7.

Epochs, 7. First Epoch : the Onomas ticon, about A. D. 300, 8. Other early works, travels, etc., 8, 9. Second Epoch: the work of Brocardus, about A. D. 1283, 9. Travels of the next three centuries, 9. Third Epoch : the work of Quaresmius, A. D. 1025, 9. The storehouse of ecclesiastical tradition, 9. Travellers in the subsequent centuries : Maundrell, Po cocke, Hassclquist, 10. In the nineteenth century, Seetzen, Burckhardt, Irby and Mangles, Russegger, Schubert, 10. Biblical Researches in Palestine in 1838 and 1852, 10. Other later travellers, 10. Fourth Epoch : Ritter's Comparative Geogra phy of Sinai, Palestine, and Syria, 10. Notices by ancient Greek and Roman writers best in Rcland's Palaestina, 10, 11. As to the present state, the author's own personal observations a chief source, 11.

PALESTINE. Names : Palestine, 15. Canaan, 15. The Promised Land, 16. The Holy Land, 16. Other appellations, 16. Boundaries and Extent. Originally extended only to the Jordan, 16. Southern boundary, 17. Western, the sea, 17. Northern, 18. Eastern, the des ert, 17. Length and breadth, 18. Area, 18. VI CONTENTS.

Chapter I. The Surface

GENERAL FEATURES. Four long parallel tracts, two low, and two elevated, 19. The plain along the coast; the Valley of Jordan. Hill-country on the west. Hill-country on the east, 19.

Section I. Mountains And Hill-country

Hebrew word signifies both mountain and hill; sometimes used collectively, 20. I. MOUNTAINS WEST OF JORDAN. 1. NORTH OF TBE PLAIN OP ESDRAELON. Character of the hill-country in the north, spreads to the sea at the Promonto rium Album and the Scala Tyriorum, 20, 21. Belat in Ashur, a high point, 21. Wild district, 21. Mount Naphthali, 24. Jebel JermiSk, 21. Hills and ridges, Tell Hazur, Mount Asamon, 22. Kurun Hattin, wrongly Mount of Beatitudes, 22. Form, 22. Hills around Nazareth; legendary Mount of Precipitation, 23. Mount Tabor, 23. Appearance, prospect, history, 21. Parallel ridges south of Tabor, 25. Little Hermon, Jebel ed-Dahy, 26. Mount Gilboa, 27. Jebel Fuku'a, 27. Mount Carmel, and connecting line of hills, 28. Form, 29. Wady cl-Milh on S. E., 29. Fertility and beauty, 29. Eb'jah's sacrifice, 30.

Heathen altar, 31. Cells in the rock, 32. 2. SOUTH OP THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON. Hill-country interrupted by the plain, 32. Rises again towards the south, 32. Eastern line, from Gilboa south, 32. Western line, from the plain south, 33. Line of lower hills on the west, 33, 34. Breadth of mountain region, 34. Its steep eastern slope, 34, 35. Divisions and names, 35. Mountains of Samaria, 36. Mountains of Israel, 36. Mountains of Ephraim, 36. Mount or Hill of Samaria, 36. Ebal and Geri zim, 36-40. History and ruins of Gerizim, 36-40. Mount Zalmon, 40. Sheikh Salmon el-Farisy, 40. Mount of the Amalekites, 41. Mount Bethel, 41. Mount Zemaraim, 41. Hill of Gaash, and brooks, 41, 42. Mountains of Judah, 42. Hill of Gibeah, 42. Mount of Gibeon, Neby Samwil, 42. Mount of Olives, 42-44. Frank Mountain, 44; site of Beth-haccerem, 44.

Mount Ferazim, 45. Mount west of the valley of Hinnom, 45. Mount Ephron, 45 46. Mount Jearim, 46. Mount Seir, 46. Hills near the seacoast of Judah, 47. Sandhill, 47. Mount Baasah, 47. Mount of Azotus, 47. Mons Angaris, 47, 48. Bill towards Hebron, 48. CONTENTS. VII 3. MOUNTAINS OVERHANGING THE GHoR AND DEAD SEA, ON THE WEST. Wall of cliffs, etc., 48. Kurn Surtabeh, 48, 49. Quarantana, Jebel Kuruntill, 49, 50. Cliffs west of Dead Sea, 50. Mountains of Engedi, 50. Sebbeh, Masada, 51. Mountain of Salt, at S. W. corner of Dead Sea, 51-53. Mountain of the Amorites, 53. Ascent of Akrabbim, Scorpion Cliffs, 53, 54. II. MOUNTAINS EAST OF JORDAN. Jebel Heish, ending at Tell el-Feras, 54. Region east of the lake of Tiberias, 54. Jebel ed-Deruz (Druze Mountain), Jebel Hauran, 54. Form and summits, 55.

Kuleib Hauran, form, 55. Meaning of the name, 55. Character of the range, 55, 56. Is the Mons Alsadamus of the ancients, 56. Bashan, kingdom of Og, 56. Mount of Bashan, probably Hermon, 57. Jebel 'Ajlun, the northern Mount Gi lead, 57. Character, extent, elevation, 58. Table-land and valleys, beauty, 59. Southern "half Mount Gilead," or el-Belka, extent, 59. Jebel Jil'ad, Neby Osha, prospect, 59. Country further south, 59. Western slopes of the mountain, 60. Elevation, 61. Level-line as seen from the west, 61. Particular mountains, 62. Moab and Sihon, 62. Reuben and Gad, 62. Plains of Moab, by Jordan, 62. Mount Abarim, 62. Mount Pisgah, 63. Mount Nebo, 64. Mount of Peor, 65. Ridge of Jebel 'Attarus, with the ruins of Ataroth, Kirjathaim, and Macharus, 66, 67. Iron Mountain, 67. Mountains of Moab, Jebel Shihan, 67, 68.

Hill of Kerak, elevation, 68. Mountains of Bether, Bithron, signification, position uncertain, 68, 69. SECTION n. VALLEYS. Different Hebrew words rendered " valley," 70. Bik'ah, 70. 'Emek, 70. Na hal,ll. Gai, 71. Valleys mostly without permanent streams, 72. I. VALLEY OF THE JORDAN, OR EL-GHOE. Part of the great longitudinal valley, 72. Its extension north and south, 72. Wady et-Teim, 73. Name. — The 'Arabah, 73. Plur. 'Arboth, wastes or plains, 74. The Aulon, the Ghor, 74. General Features. — Basin or Plain of the Hfileh, 75. Its rapid descent, 75. Its fertility, 75,76. Ancient Names : Merom, Ulatha, 76. From the Huleh to the lake of Tiberias, 77. Plain of el-Batihah, 77. Plain of Gennesareth, 78. Character of the bills south of the lake, 79. Mountains of 'Ajlun, etc., 78. Val- CONTENTS. VIII ley of Jezreel enters, 78.

Hills and valleys south of Mount Gilboa, 78. Plain of the Ghor, 78. Valley below Sakut, 79. Plain el-Ktirawa, 79. The Ghor contracted by Kurn Surtabeh, 79. The lower Ghor, a desert, 79. Breadth at Jericho, etc., 80. Length, from lake of Tiberias to Dead Sea, 80. Depression and rapid slope, 83. Valleys or Plains within the Ghor— The Hebrew word Kikkar, ' circuit,' of Jordan, 80. The Bik'ah, plain or valley; e. g. of Lebanon, of Jericho, 81. The GhcJr also an Emek, 81 ; e. g. valley by Beth-Rehob, of Succoth, of Siddim, 81. Valley of Achor, of Eeziz, 82. The Ghor a Gai; e. g. valley over against Beth- Peor, 82. Valley of Salt, 82. II. THE GHOR: SIDE VALLEYS FROM THE EAST. Two great valleys near Banias, 83. Wady el-'Asal, 84. Wady Khiishabch, 84. Wady Za'ureh, 84. Merj Yaffiny, and brook, 85.

Land and valley of Mizpeh, 85. Wady Semak and Wady Fik, 80. Valley of the Passengers, 86. Valley of the Hieromax, 80. Brook by Eaphon, 80. Wady Yabis, Jabesh- Gilead, 86. Wady el-Hcmar, 86. Wady Mahneh, Mahanaim, 85. Wady 'Ajlun, Bithron, 87. Valley of the Jabbok, SI. Wady Sha'ib, Nimrin, Beth-Nimrah, 87. Wady Hesban, Heshbon, 87. Second valley over against Beth-Peor, 87, 88. Wady Zer ka Ma'in, Callirrhoe',88. Wady Mojib, the Arnon, 88. Wady ed-Der'a'ah, 88. Wady el-Ahsy, brook Zered, 88. The valley in the country of Moab, 88. The high plain, 89. III. THE GHOR : SIDE VALLEYS FROM THE WEST. The Derdarah, from Merj 'Ayun, 89. Wady Hendaj, 89. Wady el-'Amud, 89. Wady cr-Rubudiyeh, 83. Wady cl-IIamam, and its caverns, Beth-Arbel, Arbela, 90. Wady cl-Bireh, 90. Valley of Jezreel, described, 91, 92.

Wady Ma lih, 92. Wady el-Furi'a, 92, 93. Wady Fusail, Phasaelis, 93. Wady el-'Aujeh, Wady en-Nawa'imeh, and its upper branches, 94. Wady Kelt, its heads, 94. Is probably ' the river,' also ' the water of Jericho,' 94. Probably also the brook Cherith, 94, 95. Valley of Zeboim, 96. The brook Kidron described, 96, 97. The valley of Hinnom, described, 98-100. Tophet, 100. Gihon, fountain, brook, 100, 101. Valley of Shaveh, the King's dale, 101, 102. Valley of Jehoshaphat, 102. Valley of Vision, Jerusalem, 103. The river of the Wilderness, 103. Val ley of Berachah, 103. Deep valleys on the western coast of the Dead Sea, 104. IV. VALLEYS RUNNING TO THE COAST. General character, 104. Wady el-'Ayun, or el-'Azziyeh, 104, 105. Wady Ha mul, 105. Wady el-Kurn, and fortress Kurein, 105. Wady Sha'ab, 105.

Wady 'Abilin, or valley of Jiphthah-el, 106, 107. Wady Bedawiyeh, or Wady Melik, CONTENTS. IX 107. ' River ' Kishon, 107. Wady Wesa, or Wady Abu Nar, 107. Wady Mus sin, 108. Wady Sha'ir, from Nabulus, 108, 109. Valleys next south, 109. Wady 'Azzun, by Antipatris, 109. Wady Kanah, river Kanah, 109, 110. Wady Bir Jcnab, or Wady Ribah, 110. Wady Belat, or Wady Kurawa, 110, 111. BrooJcs of Gaash, 111. Wady Ludd, or Wady Muzeiri'ah, 111, 112. Wady from Ram Allah, 112. Wady 'Atallah, 112. Wady 'Aly, 112. Valley of Ajalon, 112, 113. Valley or plain of Ono, 113. Valley of Craftsmen, 113. Nahr Rubin at Jabneh, 113. Wady Siirar, 114. Wady Isma'il, 114. Wady Beit Hanina, 114. Wady el- Werd, Wady Ahmed, Wady Bittir, 115. Wady Ghiirab, 115. Valley by Gibeon, 115, 116. Valley of Rephaim or the Giants, 116.

Valley of Sorek, 116. Wady es-Sfimt, 116, 117; formed by Wady el-Musurr and Wady es-Stir, 117; is the valley of Elah, 117. Wady Simsim, made from Wady Feranj and Wady el-Ha sy, US. Valley of Zephathah, 118. Place where Philip baptized the eunuch, 119. Wady esh-Sheri'ah, from Beersheba, 119, 120. Made from Wady 'Ar'arah and Wady el-KWilil, 120. Vale of Hebron, 120. Brook of Eshcol, 120, 121. The brook Besor, Ziklag, 121, 122. Valleys south of Beersheba, valley of Gerar, 123. Wady el-' Arish, river or torrent of Egypt, 123, 124. Note. Valley of Baca, symbolical, 124. SECTION m. PLAINS. I. PLAINS ALONG THE COAST. Southern end of the Phenician plains, 125. Plain of 'Akka, 125. Plain south of Carmel, or plain of Sharon, 126. Plain of Ono, 127. Plain south of Lydda and Joppa, the Sephela, 127. Daroma, ' the south,' 128.

II. PLAINS IN THE HILL-COUNTRY WEST OF THE GHOR. Plain of Asor, Hazor, 129. Parallel plains, 130. Plain of Ramah, 130. Plain of el-Buttauf, or plain of Zebulun, 130, 131. Plain of Esdraelon, form, ex tent, 131, 132. Three arms or branches towards the east, 132. Names in Scrip ture, etc., 133. Scene of battles, 134. Plain of Dothan, 135. Plain near Sanur, 135. Plain known as the Mukhna, 136. Scriptural notices, 137. Plain at Gibeon, 137. Plain of Rephaim, 137. Level tracts of Judah, 138. ' Plains ' put for oaks, 138. III. PLAINS IN THE GHOB. Enumeration and references, 138, 139. CONTENTS. X IV. PLAINS EAST OF THE GHOR. Plain of Mizpeh, 139. Great plain of Hauran, 139, 140. Plain of the Belka, 140,141. Scriptural notices, 141. The plain, 142. Plain of Kiriathaim, 142.

CHAPTER II WATERS. General supply of water, 143

SECTION I. RIVERS AND MINOR STREAMS.

The Jordan and its tributaries, the chief streams, 144. I. THE JORDAN AND ITS SOURCES. General characteristics, 144. Divisions, 144. Length, 145. The valleys, what, 145. Name, 145. Etymology, 145. Upper Jordan. Sources. Three main streams, 146. The Hasbany, 146. Source, 146. Bridge, 147. Its course below, 147, 148. 'Ain Seraiyib, a feeder, 147. Chasm and 'Ain Luweizany, also a seeder, 148. Tell el-Kady, the Leddan, 148. Form of the Tell, 149. Immense fountains, 149, 150. Mills, irrigation, 150. Nahr Banias. The great fountain, 150-152. Ancient Panium, 151. Water-course of the stream, 151, 152. Junction of the streams, 152, 153. Relative size, 153. Historical Notices. Only two sources named of old, 153. The Hasbany not men tioned, 153, 1.54. Analogies, 154. Principle involved, 154. From Vie Huleh to the lake of Tiberias, 154.

Bridge,155. Geshur and Geshurites, 156. Rapid de scent and foaming stream, 155, 1.56. From Bethsaida (Julias), estuary, 156. Middle Jordan : — Its issue from the lake, 156. Many rocks and strong rap ids, 157. In August full of low dams; river easily crossed, 137. Entrance of the Hieromax; bridge, 158. Windings, the Ghor, 158, 159. Fords, 158, 159. Course below, 159. Lower Jordan. — Character at Kiirn Surtabeh and below, 159, 160. Lower fords, 160, 161. Bathing-places of pilgrims, 160. Course of the river more on the east, 161. CONTENTS. XI General Features. — Valley and Channel, 161. Two terraces, or valleys, 161. Border of trees, etc., 161. Outer banks, 161, 162. The river winds, but not its valley, 162. Pride of Jordan, 162. Descent and Depression, amount, 162, 163. Overflows of Jordan. The river in spring runs with full banks, 164, 165.

Reasons why there are no floods, 163, 161. Loneliness of Jordan ,- no towns, 163, 164. No boats, one raft, 165. No fisheries, 165, 166. Jordan as a boundary. Difficult to be passed, 166. First mention, 166. Country ' beyond Jordan,' 166, 167. Recorded passages of Jordan, 107, 168. Baptism of Jesus by John, 168. Twice Jesus crosses over, 168. Explorations of Jordan, 168. Costigan, 169. Molyneux, 169, 170. Lynch, 170, 171. II. THE JORDAN : TRIBUTARIES FROM THE EAST. Wady Za'areh, 171. Head branches of the A'waj, 172. The Jarmuk or Hiero max, 172. Its sources and head branches, 173, 174. Its western part, 175. Hot springs, 175, 176. Confluence with Jordan, 176. The Jabbok, ez-Zcrka, 176-178. Scriptural notices, 177, 178. The Zerka Ma'in, 178-180. Hot springs, Callirrhoe, 179, 180. The Arnon, Nahr el-M6jib, 180.

North branch, the Waleh, 180. The Mojib proper, 181, 182. Scriptural notices, 182. Wady Kerak, 182, 183. Wady el-Ahsy, or el-KOrahy , 183 ; is the brook Zered, 184. III. THE JORDAN : TRIBUTARIES FROM THE WEST. The Derdarah, 184. Brooks, 185. Nahr el-Jalud, 185. 'Ain Jalud, 185. The stream, 185, 186. Stream of Wady el-Fari'a, 186. Water of Jericho, 186. IV. RIVERS ALONG THE COAST. General character, 187. The Belus, Nahr Na'man, 187. The Kishon, Nahr el- Mukutta' 187. Remote sources in winter, inundations, 188. Junction in the plain, miriness, 189. Dry in summer, 188, 190. Permanent sources, 1$0. Estuary and sandbar, 190, 191. Nahr Belka, 191. Nahr ez-Zerka, 191. Crocodiles, 191, 192. Is the Shihor-Libnath of Scripture, 192. Nahr el-Akhdar, 192. Nahr Abu Zaburah, 172. Nahr Arsiif, or Nahr el-Failak, 192, 193.

Nahr cl-'Aujeh, 193, 194. Streams south of Jafa: Nahr Rubin, 194. Wady at 'Askulan, 194. Wady el 'Arish, 194. No permanent stream south of the 'Aujeh, 194, 195. SECTION n. LAKES. The four lakes of Palestine, 196. I. The Phiala. — Now Birket er-Ram, situation, elevation, 196. Its basin or CONTENTS. XII bowl, extent, 196, 197. Stagnant and slimy waters, 197. Wild fowl, frogs, leeches, 197. Historical notices and position, 197, 198. Not a source of the Jordan, 198. II. Lake of the Huleh. — Situation and form, 198. Adjacent marsh, 198. Extent, 199. Not deep and not navigated, 199. Is the ancient waters of Merom and lake Semechonitis, 199. III. Lake of Tiberias. —Form and extent, 199. Depression about six hundred and fifty feet, 199. Variation of level, 200. The water sweet, 200. Fish and fishing, 200, 201.

A single boat, 201. Character of the shores, 201, 202. High winds and tempests, 202. Volcanic tract, 202, 203. Historical Notices, 203. Ancient names, 203. Rs connection with the history of the Saviour, 203. His excursions across the lake, 203, 204. Ancient navigation and sea fight, 204. Ancient fisheries, 204, 205. Tlie Hot Springs, 205. Situation, temperature, etc., 205, 200. Ancient notices, 200. IV. The Dead Sea. — Its remarkable features, 206. Ancient names, 207, 208. Form and Extent, 207. Lies in a crevasse, between parallel mountains, 207. Tho ends rounded, 207. Peninsular and southern bay, 208. Length and breadth, 208. Depth and Depression. Soundings, 208, 209. Variation of tbe surface, 209. Level below the Mediterranean, 209. Results; depression of Dead Sea, 1310.7 feet, 209. Unsuspected before 1837, 210.

Views from the Western Cliffs. Approach to the Dead Sea from the west; great descent, 210. Cliff overhanging 'Ain Jidy; extensive prospect, 210, 211. Shores of the sea like an estuary, 211. The peninsula, 211, 212. Mountains on the western coast, 211. Kerak, the Arnon, etc., 212. Character of the Waters. General qualities, 212. Four analyses, 212, 213. Cause of the excessive saltness, 214. Buoyant power, 215. Heavy waves, quickly stilled, 215, 216. No trace of animal or vegetable life, 216, 217. Great evaporation, 217. Deposits of salt at Birket cl-Khtilil, etc., 217, 218. Legendary reports, mostly without foundation, 218, 219. Many birds around, 219. Heat of the climate unhealthy, 019, 220. Asphaltum. Ancient accounts, 220. Appears only occasionally, as in 1834 and 1837, 220, 221. Rises from the bottom, 221.

Character of the shores. Parallel ranges of mountains enclosing the chasm, 221,222. Scenery, 222. Geological features, 222. The strands; no passage in some parts along the water, 222, 223. Southern shore, a mud flat, 223. Northern shore, 223. Belt between high and low water-mark, 223. Minerals occasionally picked up, 224. Blocks of breccia, etc., 224. Stone of Moses, or stink-stone, 224. Drift-wood, 225. The Peninsula. Form and extent, 225. Appearance, elevation, etc., 225, 226. The isthmus, irrigation, fertility, 226, 227. Not mentioned by ancient writers; notices, 227, 228. A small peninsula in the north, 228. Reputed islands, 228, 229. CONTENTS. XIII Tlie Ford. Two fords reported, 229, 230. They exist only where the sea is very low, 230. Navigation and Exploration. Hints of ancient navigation very slight; Jose phus, 230.

Edrisi, 231. Voyage of Costigan, 231, of Moore and Beke, 231, 232; of Molyneux, 232. United States' Expedition; its labors and results, 232, 233. Destruction of Sodom. The Dead Sea existed previously, but only north of the peninsula, 233, 234. Vale of Siddim, slime pits, 235. Probable manner of the catastrophe, 235. The fertile plain now submerged by the southern bay, 235. Apples of Sodom. The 'Osher, Asclepias gigantea, 236, 237. section m. FOUNTAINS. Palestine a land ot fountains as compared with Egypt, 238. Reports to the contrary, 238, 239. . Fountains recorded in Scripture, 239-241. Tho word 'Ain applied to villages, 241. Thirty fountains within ten miles around Jerusalem, 2 11, 242. I. Fountains in or near the Western Plain, 243, 244. II. Fountains in the Hill-Country West of Jordan.

North of the Great Plain, 2 14. In and around the same plain, 245, 24G. South of tho Great Plain, 240. At Nabulus, 247. Other fountains, 248. South of Jerusalem, 219. At Hebron, 250. in. Fountains in or near the Ghor. West of Jordan, 250. North of the lake of Tiberias, 251. At et-Tabighah, 251. 'Ain ct-Tin,252. Round fountain, 252. 'Ain cl-Baridch, 253. Hot springs, 253. From tho lake to Kilm SQrtabeh, 253. At Fusail, 254. 'Ain Duk, 254. 'Ain es-Sultfm, 255. 'Ain Hajla, 255. On the west of the Dead Sea, 256. 'Ain Jidy, 257. Others further south, 258. East of Jordan : few fountains in the north, 258. At Pella, 259. Waters of Nimrim, 259. Fountains along the east side of the Dead Sea, 259, 260. IV. Fountains of the Hill-Country, East of Jordan, 260. In the Lejah, 230, 261. West of the Haj route, 261.

In the plain and slopes of Hauran, 261. In Jebel 'Ajlun, 261, 262. Around es-Salt, 262. At 'Amman and in the Belka 262, 203. At Kerak, etc., 263. Warm and Mineral Fountains, 263, 264.

SECTION IV. WELLS.

CISTERNS. RESERVOIRS. AQUEDUCTS. I. Wells, 205. Wells of Abraham, Bcer-shcba, 265. Wells of Isaac, Rcho both, 266, 267. Jacob's well, 267-269. Other ancient wells, 269. Wells in tho CONTENTS. fields, or by the roadside, 270. King Uzziah's wells, 270. Drinking-troughs for cattle, 271. Pastoral scenes, 271. Modes of drawing water, 271, 272. II. Cisterns, their frequency, 272. Usually hewn out in the rock; form, 272, 273. Few in the plains, 273. Places where are found ancient cisterns, 273. Around Hebron, 274, 275. Between Jericho and Bethel, 275. Various places, 275, 276. Water of cisterns usually not pure, 276. Cisterns used as dungeons, 276. Cisterns for storing grain, 277. III. Reservoirs, mostly ancient, or pools. Impurity of the water, 277, 278. Pool at Hebron, 278. Pool at Gibeon, 279, 280.

Large ancient reservoirs at Bethel and Ai, 280. At various places, 280, 281. Solomon's Pools, 281. Measurement, source of supply, 2S1, 282. Vaulted room under the lower pool, 282, 283. Object of the pools, 283, 284. IV. Aqueducts, modern, 281. Ancient, at Jerusalem, 284. Aqueduct from Solomon's Pools to the temple, 285. Course, 285. The channel, 286. Remains of a still earlier channel, 286, 287.

Chapter III Climate

Preliminary remarks, 288. Parallel climate, 288. I. SEASONS. Only winter and summer, 288. Duration of each, 288. Winter or Rainy Season.— Its beginning, 289. Time for ploughing and sowing, 289. Characteristics of the rainy season, 283, 290. Observation in 1843, and 1815, 290. Snow; observations, 290. Hail, 291. Frost, 291. Roads muddy and slippery, 291. Early and Latter Rains.— Scriptural allusions, 291. Hebrew year, 292. No distinct season; beginning and end of the rainy season, 292. Consequences of their failure, 292. Summer or the Dry Season. — Its variable beginnings. From May to October no rain, characteristics, 293. Vegetation withered and dry, 293. All nature longs for rain, 294. Fogs, not unfrequent, 294. Dew, frequent and heavy, 294. ii. temperature. Causes which affect the temperature; differences of elevation, 295.

Western Hill-Country. Jerusalem as a summer residence, 295. Record of CONTENTS. XV thermometer, 296-297. Comparisons, 297. Other plains, further north, 298. Western Plain. Higher temperature ; thermometer, 299. Valley of Jordan. Sunken valley; greater heat, 299. Thermometer, 299-300. Southern production, 300. Eastern Hill-Country, temperature little known, 301. Times of Harvest, as marking temperature, 301. In the Ghor, 301. In the western plain, 301. At Hebron, Jerusalem, etc., 302. Results, 302. Melons at Tiberias, 302. in. winds Only four winds spoken of in Scripture, 302. These to be taken with latitude, 303. Winds of the Rainy Season. The rain wind is from the S. W. or W. S. W., 303. The east wind the next most frequent; brings a clear sky, 303. Other winds of winter variable, 304. Winds of Summer.

The most prevalent is from the N. W. quarter, cool and pleasant, 304. South wind or Sirocco (east wind), disagreeable, 305. Character istics, 305. Duration, 305. Sirocco from the S. E., 305; from the S.W., 306, 307. Is probably east wind of Scripture, 307. Other summer winds variable, 307. iv. purity of the atmosphere. Summer sun and sky, 307. Transparency of the air, distinctness of objects, 308. Occasional haziness, 308. Climate generally salubrious, 308. Pestilence, 308. In Jerusalem what causes produce fever and ague, 309, 310.

Chapter IV. Geological Features

Preliminary remarks, 311. I. General Limestone Formation, 311. The great masses forming the basis are Jura limestone, 312. West of Jordan, 312. Around Jerusalem and Bethlehem, 313. East of the Dead Sea and Jordan, 313. H. Sandstone, Conglomerate, Marl, 313, 314. in. Volcanic Tracts. West of the Ghor, 314. Extent, Safed the centre, 315. Chasm of Jordan below the Huleh, 315. Wady et-Teim, 316. Tell el-Kady, 316. Clumps of basaltic rocks, 316. Extinct Craters, near Safed, etc., 317, 318. CONTENTS. East of the Ghor. Igneous rocks near Banias, Jebel Heish and its line of Tells, 318. Between the Huleh and the lake of Tiberias, 318. Eastern shore of the latter lake, 319. Hauran, the plain, the Lejah, and the mountains, 319. The plain, 320. The Lejah, 321; description of, 321. The mountain, volcanic, with many extinct craters, 321.

The eastern desert volcanic, extent, 321. el-Harrah, its character, 321. el-Safa, frightful, 322. er-Ruhbeh, an oasis, 223. Jebel 'Ajlun and el-Belka, 323. Lava and volcanic rocks on east shore of Dead Sea, 323. Great volcanic tract of northern Syria, 324. IV. Earthquakes. Not unfrequent, 324. Imagery of Hebrew poets, 324. Four mentioned in Scripture, 324. Others recorded, 325. Many of northern Syria did not extend to Palestine, 326. Earthquakes, of A. D. 1170, 1202, 1759, 1834, 1837, 326. Jerusalem comparatively spared, 327. Note of Editor, 327.

Appendix

. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SYRIAN COAST. Note by the Editor, 332. General features of the Syrian Coast, 333. Syria proper including ancient Phenicia, 334. Mountains, valleys, plains, 335. Mount Amanus and the adjacent country, 335. Mount Casius, 335. Valley of the Orontes, 337. Junia, Lebanon, 338, 344. Anti-Lebanon, 345, 346. Buka'a, 347. Wady et-Teim, 348. East of the mountains, 349. II. Waters, 350. The Orontes or cl-'Asy, 351. Tho Leontes or Litany, 354. No streams of importance north of Orontes, 358. Nahr el-Kebir, 358. Nahr el-' Arils, the Sabbath river, 359. The Adonis, or Nahr Ibrahim, 360. The Lycus or Nahr el-Kelb, 360. The Tamyras (Damouras) or Nahr ed-Damiir, 3G1. The Awaly (Bostrenus), 361. The Barada (Chrysorrhoas), or Amana, 302. The Pharpar, 362. Fountains, 365, 366. III. Climate, 366.

Rainy and dry seasons, 367-370. Winds, 370. Climate of Syria healthy, 371. IV. Geological features, 372. Formation of mountains, 373. Mineral pro ductions, 374 Mineral fountains, 376. Soil, 376. V. Trees and plants, 377. Exuberance of Botany, 381. Beasts, Birds, etc. ,381. Birds, 383. Reptiles, 384. Insects, 385. Note of Author, 386. INDEX

INTRODUCTION.

.1 The Geography of the Bible has its central point in Palestine, or the Holy Land. This was the seat of the Jewish nation and of their history for more than fifteen centuries. In accordance with Jehovah's promise to Abra ham, He brought the Hebrews out of Egypt, and planted them in the Land of Promise ; converting them from a clus ter of nomadic tribes into a nation of fixed abode and agri cultural habits. They were Jehovah's own chosen people, separated from all other nations. He was to them, in a peculiar sense, their God and national Protector. His glory was enthroned among them in the temple at Jerusalem. Only among that people was the true God known, while all the rest of the world was shrouded in the darkness of idola try. Only from that land has gone forth, to other nations and to modern times, all the true knowledge which exists of God, of his Revelation, of a Future State, and of Man's Redemption through Jesus Christ.

What a mighty influence for good has thus proceeded from that little territory, to affect the opinions and destinies of individuals and of the world, for time and for eternity ! 1 The Introduction, as already stated in the Preface, was intended for the whole of the great work but a small part of which the late author was allowed to finish. See Preface.