The Resources and Prospects of America, ascertained during a visit to the States in the autumn of 1865

Front matter

THE BE SOURCES AND PROSPECTS OF AMERICA. [All rights reserved.] CHICAGO in 1831. oo. ■ 848. oo. 1 ■ ■ ■ '.' ■ ■ THE RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS OF AMERICA ASCERTAINED DURING A VISIT TO THE STATES IN THE AUTUMN OF 1865. BY SIR S. MORTON PETO, BART. M.P FOR BRISTOL. ALEXANDER STEAHAN, PUBLISHER. LONDON AND NEW YORK. 1866. LONDON : R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR, FRISTERS, lild.AD STREET HILL. Hs^r A HITTiTn A "\t T?T>TTT'"\TT" -r-r t-. .-. -r-»i-m 1 t Tm-i r T-.TTT-1 T UT.-. -m rIT It TT» I IT^TkT m TTTsl tiHIris tuiloi m.-im-r-r-r-. -n-ni-Y rt WT T-. V I n .-. t -fcTT-» 1^ T TmTTT> T71 i"k "d rTTJI?TD *~ trVTTXTTlT

Preface

. During my visit to America in 1865, a large number of volumes and other documents, abounding in statistical information relating to the resources and progress of the United States, were placed in my hands by members of several departments of the Government and other authorities. Some time after my return to England I was asked to read a paper on America to the Statistical Society of London; and having recourse to my books and papers Avith a vieAv to such a com pilation, I found that I had been placed in possession of a mass of information not generally accessible to the British public, and Avhich appeared to afford valu able subjects for reflection. It was thus that the present volume arose. In its compilation I have received much assistance from American friends thoroughly acquainted with the various topics I 'have undertaken to treat, and whose Preface.

VIII corrections and suggestions have been extremely A'aluable. It will be observed, that I have carefully confined myself to my subject — the "Resources and Pro spects of America." As far as possible, I have avoided all political allusions; and I have not at tempted any descriptions of the country, or of the manners and habits of the people, Avhich have been rendered familiar to us by far abler Avriters than myself. That which I have been anxious to afford my fellow-countrymen is an opportunity of forming a more correct judgment than that at Avhich many have hitherto arrived, of the progress, means, and probable future of the great nation on the other side of the Atlantic, with which, by every tie of fraternity, we ought to be so closely allied. In portions of this work I have drawn largely upon the several volumes of " Reports issued by the Com missioners of the Census of the United States, 1860."

At the commencement of my task I resorted to those Reports merely as books of reference, but I soon found that, on many points, they AA-ere of far higher value and importance. For the greater part of my statis tical information I am indebted to those Reports, and I have folio Aved the calculations of the Census even where I haAre found its figures liable to be disputed. Preface. IX Let me add, however, that in arriving at conclusions Avith reference to those statistics, I have by no means permitted myself to be led blindly by the Census Reports, or by the feeling prevailing in America which in many cases they reflect. On the contrary, it will be observed that, on several very important topics, I have recorded my entire dissent from the conclu sions arrived at by the Commissioners, and especially from those relating to the manufacturing industry and commerce of the country.

My book bristles Avith figures, and I fear Avill scarcely commend itself to those avIio think that there Avas Avisdom in the emphatic enunciation of the Eastern Pacha, AATho is reported to have declared to some one making incmiries relating to his Govern ment, that he Avas sixty years old, and had governed a province for five-and-thirty years, but had never even thought of counting the tiles upon the roofs of the houses or the number of donkeys Avithin his pachalik. It may, possibly, be thought by some avIio do not fully appreciate the force and Aralue of sta tistics, that I have made unnecessary use of them : in reply, I have only to observe that I have Avritten principally for those who do find in figures a source of valuable information. In submitting the volume to criticism, not only Preface.

X on the European but on the American side of the Atlantic, I will only ask leave to make one claim. HoAvever my conclusions may be judged of in America, I do claim that I have Avritten with a friendly feeling towards a people from whom, during my visit to them, I received nothing but attention, hospitality, and kindness. I should be very ungrateful, indeed, did I not entirely reciprocate the feeling shoAvn towards me by all classes in America ; and, hoAvever much my vieAVS may differ from those of many persons in the States, I trust they will find in no single observation I have made a ground on which to charge me with a Avant of due sense of their kind consideration. 13, Kensington Palace Gakdens, London, \Uh March, 1866. CONTENTS. Section I. POPULATION.

Section I. Population

r. AMERICAN RESOURCES, ire.

SECTION I.

-POPULATION.

CHAPTER I.

preliminary. %^Bffl^t^HEN I visited the United States in The Civil y^MmlfM the autumn of last year (1865), the rnif^Jfn ' n'' '" — ;i war "^ unparalleled magnitude and severity— had only just been brought to a termination. The position of the country gave rise to considerations of unecmalled interest. To what extent had it suffered ? how long was it likely to languish under the effects of war ? It was a happy circumstance, that, throughout this Condition in unequalled civil contest, peace was preserved with ieft America. every foreign nation. Internal order also was main tained throughout the North : — the laws had been respected and obeyed. Although a million of the population had been Avithdrawn from their industrial occupations to assume arms, the progress of peaceful B A merica n Re so urces. [Sect.

I 4 President Lincoln's de scription. Sustentation of Credit during the War,' industry had not been arrested. In the Avords of the late President of the United States : — "The axe has enlarged the borders of our settle " mcnts, and the mines, as well of iron and coal, as of " the precious metals, have [during the war] yielded " more abundantly than before. Population has " steadily increased, notwithstanding the waste that " has been made in the camp, the siege, and in the " battle-field. The country, now rejoicing in the con " sciousness of augmented strength and vigour, is " permitted to expect continuance of years Avith large " increase of prosperity and freedom/' To this may be added the most remarkable feature of the Civil War in the United States, — namely, the maiwellous sustentation of credit in the North, through out the Avbole period of the rebellion.

On the European side of the Atlantic, the enquiry was constantly repeated, " "When Avill the finances of America collapse V Speculations were made in the money markets on the assumption that the American resources must inevitably fail. Yet on the American side, not only was there no idea of failure, but, despite the increase of debt, which accumulated with a rapidity absolutely unknown in any previous history, the pres sure of taxation was unflinchingly borne, and the payment of interest Avas regularly made. Nor was this all. Although the country might have been ex pected to have been drained both of men and stores, to supply the immense armies which were sustained, the requirements of the entire population were met Avithout any increase of prices beyond that which re sulted from a depreciation of the currency.

Throuo-h- Historically unexampled. and attributable to the Resources of America. Abundance of those resources, out the war the nation gave evidence of rapidly increasing Avealth. Probably, the parallel of this is not to be found in the AvorlcTs history. All records, of whatsoever period, show, that during fierce and desolating struggles, the populations engaged in them have suffered fearful privations and miseries, and that protracted periods have elapsed before they have been able to recover from their effects. America, Avhich in so many respects has shown herself superior to ordinary rules, has, in regard to the effects of Avar, shown that the heaviest and most costly civil conflict can be borne not only Avithout exhaustion, but even with an increase of national prosperity. If I am asked to account for this, I can only do so by attributing it to the wonderful elasticity of the Resources of the United States.

In my travel through the United States in the autumn of last year, the abundant resources of the country was the feature Avhich struck me most forcibly. It appeared the key to everything else. I sawr wild territories, both of forest and prairie, being cleared and populated : I saw villages springing into towns, and towns into cities, with a rapidity so marvellous, that one's first idea Avas to attribute it all to the work of some powerful magician : I passed through whole regions Avhere every description of grain seemed to spring up spontaneously : I went over lines of railway seemingly constructed for the express purpose of con veying this produce to ports from which it could be shipped to countries where there Avas a superabundant The National Debt. Its enormous Total. population to consume it : I passed down immense rivers, swarming with steamboats and other vessels, filled with produce : I was brought into commu nication with the merchants avIio conducted the varied commerce to AA'liich all this gave rise : and, looking at all I met with, I could not fail to be struck, as a practical man, with the extraordinary and wonderful character of American resources, surpassing, by far, anything of Avhich we haA^e the slightest experience in the old world, great as are our oavu products, and remarkable as is the industry of our teeming population.

It is mainly Avith the desire to draAv the attention of my fellow-countrymen to this remarkable feature of America, that I have undertaken the task entailed on me by this publication. But, before I enter upon any details respecting American resources, I must offer some particulars relating to the debt. Commercial men and others, Avho are abou to embark in the great trade which America Avill speedily open up, wall natu rally desire to look, in the first instance, at the Dr. side of the account, and examine the extent of the indebtedness, before they proceed to consider the means the nation has at its disposal of meeting its liabilities. The debt incurred by the war amounts to an enormous item, as expressed in arithmetical figures. On the 31st of May, 1865, at Avhich date the war may be taken to have ceased, the public debt of the United States Avas officially declared by Mr. McCulloch, uoav Secretary of the Treasury, to amount to $2,635,205,753, equal, at the ordinary rate of five dollars to the pound, to upwards of £527,000,000 of English money.

The Its rapid in crease. interest upon this debt was computed at $124,638,874, equal to £24,927,775 of our money. Besides the interest>bearing debt there were, in circulation, nearly 660 millions of dollars of "Legal Tender Notes" (better known here by the title of "Green Backs"), which Avere legally receivable for all dues to the nation, except Customs. Adding to the debt of £527,000,000, the provision Avhich must be made on account of these and other liabilities, we have a total indebtedness on the part of the Govern ment of the United States, in round numbers, of $3,000,000,000 (Three Thousand Million Dollars), or £600,000,000 (Six Hundred Millions) of our money. * At the commencement of the war, the National Debt of the United States amounted to only $65,000,000, or £13,000,000 sterling.

The official statements show its increase as folloAvs : — 25 April, 1862 $523,299,94.5 10 „ 1863 939,497,359 26 „ 1864 1,656,815,105 31 March, 1865 2,366,955,077 It Avill be seen, from these figures, that the increase of the debt was by far the greatest during the last year of the Avar. BetAveen 1862 and 1863 the debt increased * Since this chapter was written, the " Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the state of the Finances" for the year 1865 has been presented to Congress. It substantially confirms these estimates. The debt on the 31st October, 1865, including the United States or Legal Tender Notes, was declared to be $2,808,549,437 ; and the Secretary says, "when all our liabilities shall be ascertained, it seems safe to estimate it at Three Thousand Million Dollars." [Vide post.

Sec. Finance.] Rate of In terest at which it was incurred. Almost the whole debt held by Ame rican citizens, at the rate of $1,189,135 a day; but between 1864 and 1865 it increased at the rate of $2,094,808 a day ! Nothing can shoAV more forcibly than such statistics the efforts which Avere capable of being made by a country Avhich many persons considered must have already exhausted its resources. It is a very remarkable fact, that all this accumulation of debt Avas incurred at rates of interest absolutely lower than those Avhich prevailed prior to the commencement of the war. In 1860 the current rate of interest upon the national securities was 6 per cent. ; and it is said that the then Secretary of the Treasury Avas borrowing money at nearly double that rate of interest. In 1863, however, the average rate of interest on the greatly increased debt was only 3 "8 9 per cent., and the highest rate (for a comparatively small sum) was only 7'30 per cent.

At the close of the war, the average rate of interest on the whole debt is actually less than it Avas at the commencement of the war, being only 5"55 per cent. 276 millions were at 5 per cent, 1,117 millions at 6 per cent, 156 \ millions (or the compound interest notes) at 6 '4 6 per cent, and 301 millions at 7 '30 per cent. The two last items of the debt Avere convertible into 6 per cent, stock in August 1867 and 1868. This appears, undoubtedly, to show a skilful administration of financial affairs. It is another noticeable fact that almost the entirety of this debt is held by Citizens of the Republic. During the War, the financiers of the United States were not, indeed, in a position to negotiate their securities out of the country, except at excessive and unreasonable sacrifices. The Avhole of the debt incurred had, there- Mr. Chase's financial policy.

Resolve of the Americans to liqui date the debt. fore, to be raised Avithin the territory. It is insisted by those who have turned their attention to the ques tion in America, that this was effected by Mr. Chase Avith great skill and judgment, and by the adoption of a system which tended to place the financial position of the country on a peculiarly sound and satisfactory basis. This part of the question, however, is mainly of local interest. The principal means employed was the authorization of National or United States Banks (instead of separate State Banks), as Banks of Issue ; the circulation of such neAV Banks being secured to the public not only by private Capital, but by adequate deposits of United States Stocks with the Government. The new arrangement, which mate rially interfered with vested interests, was, in the first instance, greatly opposed, and after a Session of eight months in 1861, Congress failed to adopt it.

But Avhen the State Banks in 1861-2, found it necessary to suspend specie payments, the country came round to Mr. Chase's plan, and adopted " An Act to provide a National Currency, secured by a pledge of United States Stocks, and to provide for the circulation and redemption thereof," upon the basis of which enact ment the Avhole financial system of the country has since been conducted. In Great Britain, where our Debt is £800,000,000 and the Annual Interest payable upon it £26,000,000, Ave have been accustomed to hear constant complaints of "the burden of the debt," without one syllable ever being uttered, that I can remember, respecting its liquidation. Nothing struck me more forcibly in America than the different tone of the population [Sect. I. American Resources. 10 Period assigned for its redemption. respecting their liabilities.

With a debt of £600,000,000, involving an Annual Interest of (say) £25,000,000 (nearly as heavy a payment as our own), the cry of the whole population is that " The Debt must be paid, " and can be paid." " The faith of our Nation is " pledged for its discharge," is cried on one side. " We " are financially able to pay," proclaims another party. I was referred by several parties to the past experience of the nation. They told me that the debt entailed by the War of 1812, was wholly discharged, from the ordinary sources of revenue, in a period of nineteen years ; and that practically the burden of that debt had never been felt by anybody, though, considering the difference in the numerical population, the capital wealth and the future prospects of the country, it Avas almost as great a debt, in proportion, as the present.

In fact, from the President at Washington, down to the humblest agriculturalist in the far West, I found but one prevailing feeling respecting the debt. Emphati cally the wdiole population said — " It must be paid : " it can be paid : it shall be paid : and it will be paid." EATerybody seems to have his own scheme for effecting the object : in fact, the Americans are just now almost as great financiers as the Birmingham people used to be in the days of Mr. Thomas Attwood. In almost every town there is some Stock-broker or Banker, or Financial Agent, aat1io has made and published his calculations on the subject. The most sanguine calculate the payment of the amount to cover a period of twenty years : others estimate that twenty -five or even thirty years will be needed. The President of the United States in his Message to Congress, and the Secretary of the Treasury in his last Annual Report, assume that "the whole will be liquidated Avithin a " period not exceeding thirty years."

But, whatever the period assigned for the total redemption of the liability, there is but one feeling as to the necessity of liquidating it, and there seems to be but one faith in the capability of accomplishing the object. I own that, Avithout being sanguine at the outset, The Nation I at length brought my OAvn mind to a conclusion the liability. equally strong with that of all the Americans I encountered, that the Nation could well bear all her liabilities, and was quite equal to the payment of them within a reasonable period, if necessary. To this conclusion I was brought, more especially, by an examination and estimate of the Resources of the United States : the subject Avhich I propose to treat. The Population. Its unequalled increase Owing to Im migration,

CHAPTER II.

the population. The population of the United States has increased in the folloAving rapid ratio : — 1800 5,305,925 1810 7,239,815 1820 9,638,121 1830 12,866,020 1840 17,069,453 1850 23,191,876 1860 31,429,891 There is nothing in the old Avorld to equal this rate of progress. The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800 was 16 millions, and in 1861 was under 30 millions. Since 1830 the population of the United States has increased 19 millions, Avhilst that of our kingdom has increased less than 6 millions. The cause of this great increase of population in America is attributable to immigration, — a cause which does not appertain to any of the older European nations. Whilst the increase of the population in Great Britain represents almost exclusively the natural increase of a populous and thriving country, the increase in the population of the United States represents an entirely different element.

Chap. II.] Tlie Population. 13 It has been mathematically demonstrated that if the United States since the year 1800 had been in the same circumstances as Great Britain — that is, if there had been no immigration, and the increase of her population had arisen from natural causes only — the free Avhite and coloured people of the United States Avould, at the present time, have only numbered 10,463,000, or one-third of the whole present popu lation. In fact, it is estimated that, of the Avhole population in 1863, the immigrants of the present century, and their descendants, number more than 21,000,000, or two-thirds of the whole. to which one third of the present popu lation is due. Prior to 1820, no returns Avere taken of the number of aliens landing in the United States. It is estimated that there were about 70,000 arrivals between 1800 and 1810, and about 114,000 between 1810 and 1820.

Of this total there were — Males 2,977,603 Females 2,035,536 Sex not stated 49,275 Total 5,062,414 This disproportion of sexes amongst the immigrants maintains itself in the United States generally. At the census of 1860 there was an excess of 730,000 males over the females ; just the reverse of the case in Great Britain and Ireland, where, with about the same population, the females outnumber the males by 877,000. This is a curious fact, as showing how wisely and accurately Providence has proportioned the sexes in different parts of the globe : our dispro portion being obviously the result of emigration to America and Australia, Avhilst the obverse disproportion in both those countries is due to their immigration of European males. Classifying this immigration in decennial periods, Ave find that it has increased in the folloAvinopro portions : — Decennial proportions.

Ages of Im migrants. Countries which have contributed to the popu lation. Immigrants. In the 10 years ending 1829 128,502 In „ „ 1839 538,381 In „ „ 1849 1,427,337 In the 11 years „ 1860 2,968,194 5,062,414 It is of great advantage to the United States that by far the greater proportion of the immigrants are of the age at Avhich they are best fitted for labour. The records shew that upwards of 50 per cent of the Avhole Avere between 15 and 30 years of age. Only 10 per cent, were above 40, and only about 8 per cent, under 5. Great Britain and Ireland haA'e contributed most largely to this immigration. Our OAvn emigration returns show that, between 1814 and 1860, no less than 4,244,727 persons have emigrated to the United States and Canada. Of these the United States officials claim to have received directly 2,759,874, or, Avith those who came through Canada, about 3,250,000.

It is certainly a fact that excites some Avonder as regards our own country, that Ave should have been able to spare such immense masses of our population (com prehending upwards of 5,046,000) as haA'e gone forth, not only to people the United States and Canada, but Australia, NeAv Zealand, the Cape of Good Hope, and the numerous other possessions of Great Britain. That we should have been able to people the Avorld in this way, and yet have made such unequalled strides in the acquisition of material wealth at home, remarkably illustrates the force of our manufacturing power and of our commerce, as Avell as the industry and enterprise of the British people. But it is not Great Britain alone which has con tributed to the population of America. It will be seen from the following table, that more or less of the population of almost every European country have been attracted to the shores of the United States.

IMMIGRATION, 1820-1860. Great Britain and Ireland 2,750,874 Germany 1,486,044 France 208,063 Prussia 60,432 China 4M43 Westlndies 40,487 Switzerland 37,733 Norway and Sweden 36,129 Holland 21,579 Mexico 17,766 Spain 16,248 Italy 11,202 Belgium 9,862 South America 6,201 Denmark 5,540 Azores 3,242 Portugal 2,614 Sardinia 2,030 Poland 1,659 Russia 1,374 It has been calculated, though on very imperfect data, that each immigrant Avho lands in America brings with him an average sum of 68 dollars, or (say) £1 3 12s. sterling. But these returns Avere obtained from amongst the poorest class of immigrants. Among cabin passengers the average amount Avould evidently be much higher ; and from returns made to the Governments of Prussia and Bavaria, for seven years, by emigrants who left those countries AATith official Statistics.

Wealth in troduced by the Immi grants. permission, it appears that they each carried to America an average amount of 180 dollars, or £36 of our money. The United States officials calculate that the immigrants have brought into the United States not less than 400,000,000 of cash dollars or (say) =£80,000,000 sterling, besides the much superior values represented by their physical, intellectual, and moral powers. The causes which have led to the great emigration from Europe to the United States are very various. We all knoAv that the early settlers in America were impelled to seek a refuge there from religious bigotry and political exclusion at home. Those causes are not hoav generally operative. It is probable that the tide of emigration to America Avhich commenced to set in strongly about 1825, Avas occasioned by the opening out of the north-Avestern States in that year, and by the prospect afforded of obtaining land in the country at exceedingly Ioav rates.

It will be observed that a great and sudden rise in the immigration occurred in 1832. This may have been occasioned both by the success of the settlers of the seven previous years, and by the un settled condition of Europe at that time. Another accelerated movement, attributed to the loss of the potato crop in Ireland, began in 1847 ; and for several years from that period the immigration Avas SAVollen by the continental reA'olutions of 1848, and the discovery of gold in California. After the year 1854, the emigration from Europe declined, Avhich is ascribed to the Crimean Avar, and afterwards to the outbreak of the Indian mutiny, absorbing large numbers in European armies. Subsequently the construction of new rail- Causes of the large Emi gration from Europe to America. Religious and political ex clusions.

Low prices of Land. The Potato famine. The Gold discoveries. The recent decline of Immigration accounted for. c roads created a remunerative demand for labour at home. And after 1860 the civil war in the United States, and the effects it occasioned, greatly affected the immigration. It is to be regretted that the occupations of im- Occupations of the Immi grants. migrants have not been very perfectly registered in America. Out of five millions of immigrants, the occupations of three millions are not stated. Most of these, no doubt, were women and children, but it is also possible that a considerable number, being prepared to turn their hands to anything, considered it undesirable to define that they followed any particular occupation. Of the 3,000,000 whose occupations are stated, Ave find the following registration : — OCCUPATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS.

Labourers 872,317 Farmers 764,837 Mechanics 407,524 Merchants 231,852 Servants 49,494 Miners 39,967 Mariners 29,484 Weavers and Spinners 11,557 Seamstresses and Milliners 5,246 Physicians 7 109 Clergymen 4,326 Clerks 3^82 Tailors 3^34 Shoemakers 3 474 Manufacturers 3120 Lawyers 2 676 Artists 2,490 Masons 2,310 Engineers 2016 Teachers 1528 t _ Total Percentage Fojjulatiun. Foreign. of Foreign. chicago 109,260 54,624 49.99 Buffalo (N.Y.) 81,129 37,684 46.44 Newark (New Jersey) .. . 71,914 26,625 37.02 Louisville (Kentucky)... 68,033 22,948 33.73 Albany(,V.r.) 62,367 21,619 34.66 Washington 61,122 10,765 17.61 San Francisco 56,802 28,454 50.09 Providence (Æ/We Island) 50,666 12,570 24.80 Pittsburg (Pa.) 49,217 18,063 36.70 Rochester (NY) 48,204 18,897 39.20 Detroit (Michigan) 45,619 21,349 46.79 Milwaukie (Wisconsin) . 45,246 22,848 50.49 Cleveland (Ohio) 43,417 19,437 44.76 Charleston 40,578 6,311 15.55 Thus we see that AAThilst the newly settled cities of the North and North-West, such as Chicago, Milwaukie, and.

Buffalo, have the largest proportion of foreign settlers, and whilst New York itself and the cities in that State have the largest number of such residents, the City of Charleston, though situated on the sea-board and a great port of commerce, has by far the smallest resident foreign population of all the cities in the United States numbering over 40,000 inhabitants, and consequently has increased in population in the smallest ratio. This fact is very suggestive. I shall have to deal with the subject more at length Avhen I come to speak especially of the Southern States. In the meantime, I may observe that I have not thought it necessary in this chapter to consider, at length, the dispropor tions between the various races in the United States, or the variations in their respective rates of increase.

As the information, however, is not altogether foreign Increase of Population in the North and South contrasted. The Coloured races. to the subject, it may be stated that, in 1860, the Free Coloured population of the United States numbered 482,122, and their then Slave population 3,953,587. The Avhites, between 1850 and 1860, increased 38 per cent. ; the slaves 23 per cent. ; and the free coloured somewhat less than 11 per cent. These statistics still further sustain the position that' it is to immigration that America OAves the rapid increase of her popu lation. Their proportion of increase. The great mass of the immigrants to the United States are known to have changed their circumstances for the better. This is sheAvn by the very large amounts of money remitted, annually, from America to Europe.

Between 1850 and 1860 no less than £10,000,000 of money is known* to have been remitted through the agency of the Banks and large Mercantile houses, by settlers in North America to their friends in Europe. A large proportion of this amount has, doubtless, been destined to assist relatives and friends to emigrate : but for Avhatever purpose sent, the amount shews the extent to which the immierants themselves profited by their settlement in the new world of their adoption. Improvement of the Immi grants' position, The largest number of foreigners reside in the following States in the order named : New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Massa chusetts : the smallest number reside in North Caro lina, Florida, Arkansas, Oregon, Mississippi and Delaware. States chiefly selected for settlement by different nations.