France under Mazarin, with a review of the administration of Richelieu

Preface

. The period covered by the administrations of Richelieu and Mazarin is one of both interest and importance. Yet I am not aware that any full history of this time has been written in English. The career and character of Riche lieu are, to a certain extent, familiar, but, perhaps, most have a general idea of his administration, rather than a familiarity with what he actually did. Both the character and administration of Mazarin are, I think, little known to most English readers. Yet eighteen years which em braced the Fronde, and the treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, cannot be deemed unimportant. If the policy of Richelieu is worth studying, the man who was his legitimate successor should not be ignored by students of history. The accuracy of modern scholarship demands, also, the examination of authorities which, until recently, have been largely inaccessible and wholly disregarded.

There are a great number of contemporary memoirs covering this time. Many of the leading political characters have left their own records of their careers. It is upon such authori ties, chiefly, that any works treating of this period have been based, with the exception of a few recent French publications. The ideas entertained of the Fronde, for example, and of the characters of Mazarin and Conde, have been principally derived from various contemporary memoirs, of which those of Retz are best known and have been most used. Many of these memoirs furnish much information that is accurate and valuable, and a study of them is indispensable. But it is impossible, FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. IV with such data alone, to describe the events of the time with any degree of accuracy or justness.

The most satisfactory historic materials are the letters and documents of the principal actors, and only by a careful study of these can a correct idea be obtained either of the events, or of the motives or purposes of those who took part in them. By the enlightened liberality of the French government, much has recently been done to as sist students of its history. The most important letters, instructions, and despatches of Richelieu, and some of those of Mazarin and Colbert, have been published un der the supervision of distinguished scholars. But a great mass of letters and despatches of Mazarin, as well as of Le Tellier, Lionne, and others who were assistants or agents of the cardinal in his long administration, still remain in manuscript, and familiarity with them is, I think, required of any one who desires to understand Mazarin's character or career.

Among the most curious and valuable sources of information, are the so called Carnets of Mazarin, which are among the man uscripts of the National Library at Paris. In these little memoranda-books the cardinal for over eight years jotted down his most private views and purposes, the advice he was to give the regent, the reports he heard of the plans of his adversaries, his secret hopes and fears. Rarely has any statesman left so curious and confiden tial a record. Yet, until recently, no one has attempted to decipher the difficult and sometimes illegible hiero glyphics in which Mazarin kept his secret memoranda. M. Cheruel, in the two works which he has recently published, "La Minorit6 de Louis XIV." and "France sous le Ministere de Mazarin," has used largely the correspondence and Carnets of Mazarin, and the manuscripts of the Parisian libraries and of the Department of For eign Affairs.

He has, however, confined himself entirely to the diplomatic and political history of the period of which he treats. Another copious and valuable source of information has

PREFACE.

. V recently been opened to students, and, I believe, has been used by no one, except to some extent by M. Cheruel, in the despatches of the Venetian ambassadors. The origi nals have been preserved at Venice, and a few years ago permission was given to make copies of those covering a period of nearly two centuries. These copies, in manu script, are now in the National Library, and, except the correspondence and diplomatic papers of Richelieu and Mazarin, they are the most useful and accurate authori ties for most of the events of this time. The occurrences of each year fill nearly two large volumes of manuscript. The reports were made at intervals of but a few days, and sometimes daily, by the representatives of Venice to their own government. More intelligent and impartial authori ties than her ambassadors could hardly be found.

In the manuscripts and neglected publications of the French libraries much can also be found that throws light upon subjects quite as important as treaties or foreign wars ; on the condition of the people, the manner in which they lived, the cost of what they ate and wore, the weight of taxation, the misery produced by the ravages of the soldier and of the tax-gatherer. The recent works of M. Feillet, " La Misere au Temps de la Fronde," and of M. d'Avenel, " Richelieu et la Monarchie absolue," are of much value to those who wish to investigate these in teresting subjects. Several contemporary journals, one of the most important of which, that of Ormesson, has re cently been published ; the publications which began at this time and which answered to our modern newspapers; the official journals of the Parliament of Paris and of the States-General of 1614, must also be studied by those who wish to understand the period.

I am not aware that any English history of France has been based upon the various materials to which I have referred, nor have those, which it seems to me are most important, been used except by one or two French historical writers. In view of this, I have thought that an English history of France under Richelieu and Mazarin might not be with- VI FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AiVD MAZARIN. out value. As the career of Mazarin is less familiar, I have treated it with more fulness and given only a review of Richelieu's administration. The liberality with which stu dents are allowed access, not only to the great French libraries, but also to the diplomatic correspondence which is preserved at the Department of Foreign Affairs, is known to all who have made any research in the origi nal authorities for French history.

The most of the manu scripts, which I had occasion to examine, are found at the National Library or at the Foreign Department. I should also express my personal obligation to M. Cheruel for the advice he gave me in my researches, and his valuable sug gestions as to where the best information could be found. Without his aid, the labor of investigation among the great masses of manuscript and printed matter would have been much increased. Whether the results of such investigations will possess any value, or any interest, for English readers, I cannot say. To a student of history the pleasure of being brought in close contact with the great figures of other times, of reading their thoughts and their purposes, of living for a while in intimate relations with a generation that has long passed away, sympathizing, as a contemporary might, with their adversity and their suffering, rejoicing in what gratified national pride or increased individual comfort, is such, that though what I have written should only add to the number of valueless books, the years spent in the study of French life and history under the rule of the two great cardinals will have an enduring charm in the recollection of the writer. Rochester, N. Y., March, 1886.

Chapter 1

The Minority of Louis XIII. — 1610-1614. PAGE Condition of France under Henry IV. 1 Nature of Administration of Richelieu and Mazarin .... 2 Effect of Henry IV.'s Death 5 Henry's Scheme for Remodelling Europe ...... 7 Condition of France after his Death ....... 9 Mary de Medici, Regent ......... 10 The Concini Obtain her Favor . . . . . . . .12 Punishment of Ravaillac ......... 13 Character of the Duke of Sully ....... 14 He is Removed from Office ........ 16 His Fortune . . . . . . . . . . .17 His Life at Villebon 18 Policy of the New Administration . . . . . . . lS Condition of France During the Regency ...... 20 Richelieu's Policy Towards the Nobility ...... 22 The Spanish Marriages Announced ....... 23 Conde Returns to France . 24 Favors Bestowed on Concini ........ 25 Country less Prosperous than under Henry ..... 26 Revolt of the Nobles under Conde 27 Peace of Sainte Menehould 28

Chapter II

The States-General — 1614-1615. Development of the States-General 3° First Assembly of the Three Estates 32 Position of the Nobility 33 Influence of the Third Estate 34 Method of Electing Deputies ........ 35 FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. PAGE Defects in the Organization of the States-General .... 37 States-General of 1614 . 40 Number of Delegates . . . . . . . . .41 Opening of the Session ......... 42 Demand for Abolition of the Paulette ...... 43 Quarrels between the Nobles and Third Estate ..... 44 The Clergy Ask a Change in the Mode of Procedure ... 46 The Third Estate Ask that the King be Declared Independent of any Spiritual Authority ......... 47 Epernon Releases a Soldier from Arrest by Force .... 49 Bonneval Assaults a Deputy of the Third Estate . . . . 51 Condition of the Finances ......... 52 Speeches of Richelieu and the Provost of Merchants .... 54 Cahiers of Third Estate . . . . . . . . -55 Cahiers of Clergy and Nobility ........ 58 Close of the States-General ........ 59 Reply to the Cahiers .......... 60

Chapter III

Concini and Luines — 1615-1622. Remonstrances of Parliament . . . . . . . .61 Conde in Revolt .......... 63 Marriage of the King ......... 64 Huguenots Join Conde ......... 65 Peace of Loudun .......... 66 Conde's Power ........... 63 His Arrest ........... 70 Wealth and Favor of Concini ........ 71 Richelieu Made Secretary of State ....... 72 Richelieu's Early Life ......... 73 His Policy on Taking Office ........ 74 Luines is Made King's Falconer ....... 76 Murder of Concini .......... 78 Retirement of Richelieu ......... 79 Execution of Concini's Wife ........ 80 Favor Enjoyed by Luines . . . . . . . . .81 Insurrection Led by Mary de Medici ....... 82 Position of the Huguenots ....... .83 Troubles in Beam .......... 86 War between Louis and the Huguenots ...... 88 Peace of Montpelier 90 Character of the Huguenot Party ....... 90 Death of Luines .......... 93 Lesdiguieres is Made Constable .

Chapter IV

The Administration of Richelieu — 1622-1632 PAGE Richelieu is Made Cardinal and Chief Minister .... 97 His Relations with the King 08 Death of Philip III g9 Foreign Relations of France 100 Character of Richelieu's Administration ...... 101 Troubles in the Valteline 104 Insurrection of the Huguenots 105 Peace in the Valteline , 106 Investigation of Frauds on the Revenue 107 Assembly of Notables 108 The Navy and Destruction of Castles 109 Trading Companies in Appointment of Superintendents ....... 113 Duelling and Execution of Bouteville . . . . . .114 Conspiracy of Chalais ......... 115 His Execution . . . . . . . . . .117 War with England .......... 118 Description of La Rochelle 119 Repulse of the English ......... 120 Siege of La Rochelle ......... 121 Construction of the Dike ......... 122 Surrender of La Rochelle ......... 126 Hostilities with the Huguenots ........ 127 Relief of Casal ........... 129 Overthrow of the Huguenot Party ....... 130 Foreign Plans of Richelieu ........ 131 Illness of Louis XIII. 133 Day of the Dupes .......... 135 Exile of Mary de Medici 137 Marriage of Gaston . . . . . . . . . .138 Insurrection of Gaston and Montmorenci ...... 139 Execution of Montmorenci ........ 143

Chapter V

The Thirty Years' War — 1618-1641. Beginning of the Thirty Years' War ....... 145 Election of Ferdinand II. as Emperor ...... 148 His Success in the War ......... 149 Edict of Restitution .......... 151 Wallenstein 152 Treaty with Denmark ......... 155 Gustavus Adolphus .......... X FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. PAGE His Treaty with France 156 He Invades Germany ......... 157 Removal of Wallenstein 158 Treaty of Ratisbon 159 Siege of Magdeburg 161 Battle of Breitenfeld 162 March of Gustavus through Germany ...... 163 Recall of Wallenstein 164 Battle of Lutzen 165 Death of Gustavus Adolphus ........ 167 Richelieu Takes Active Part in the War ...... 168 Progress of the War .......... 169 Treason of Wallenstein . . . . . . . . .171 His Murder 172 Treaty of Prague . . . . . . . . . .173 War Declared between France and Spain ...... 174 Alliance with Holland ......... 175 Progress of the War . . . . . . . . . .176 Invasion of France . . . . . . . . . .178 Plot to Murder Richelieu 180 Bad Condition of the Army ........ 184 Relations of Fiance with Lorraine ....... 186 France Takes Possession of Lorraine ....... 188 Conduct of the Duke of Lorraine ....... 189

Chapter VI

The Close of Richelieu's Administration — 1632-1642. Relations of Louis XIII. with Women ...... 191 Mademoiselle de Hautefort ........ 192 Her Relations with the King ........ 193 P'avor of Mademoiselle de Lafayette ...... 194 She Retires to a Convent ......... 196 Intrigues of Father Caussin ........ 197 He is Disgraced .......... 199 Arrest of La Porte .......... 199 Birth of Louis XIV. .......... 201 Louis Consecrates his Kingdom to the Virgin ..... 201 Capture of Brisach, Death of Father Joseph ..... 202 Death of The Duke of Weimar ........ 203 Portugal Revolts against Spain ........ 204 Revolt of Catalonia .......... 205 It is Annexed to France ......... 206 Victories of the French ......... 207 Insurrection of Count of Soissons ....... PAGE His Death 210 Annexation of Monaco ......... 211 Favor of Cinq Mars 213 His Relations with Louis XIII. 214 Plis Plots against Richelieu ........ 217 Gaston and Cinq Mars Make a Treaty with Spain .... 218 Illness of Richelieu .......... 218 The Treaty with Spain is Discovered ....... 220 Arrest of Cinq Mars and De Thou 222 Death of Mary de Medici 224 Trial and Execution of Cinq Mars and De Thou .... 225 Sedan Surrendered to France 226 Richelieu's Return to Paris ........ 227 His Illness and Death 228 His Will 229 Mazarin Appointed Chief Minister 230

Chapter VII

Mazarin — 1642-1643. Mazarin's Family and Early Life ....... 232 War about Duchy of Mantua ........ 235 Treaty Made at Casal 238 Mazarin Ambassador to France ........ 240 He is Made Cardinal ......... 242 Succeeds to Richelieu ......... 243 Release of those Imprisoned under Richelieu ..... 245 Hopes of the Importants ......... 246 Disgrace of De Noyers ......... 247 Declaration of Regency ......... 249 Louis XIII. 's Last Illness and Death 251 Ceremonies at his Funeral ........ 253 Nature of the Politics of the Time ....... 255 Beaufort and Beauvais ......... 256 Question as to Tenure of Judicial Office ...... 258 Parliament Annuls the King's Declaration as to the Regency . . 260 Mazarin Retained in Office 262 His Negotiations with the Queen ....... 264 The Duke of Enghien 265 Battle of Rocroi 268 The Victory Strengthens the Government ...... 271 Capture of Thionville ......... 273 Confirmation of Edicts to the Huguenots ...... 274 Campaign in Germany ......... 275 Viscount of Turenne FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN.

XII PAGE Naval Battle at Carthagena 279 Mazarin's Advice to the Queen ........ 280 Return of Madame de Chevreuse ....... 281 Changes in Office .......... 283 Mazarin Defends Richelieu's Family ....... 284 Condition of the Court 285 Carnets of Mazarin .......... 286 Affair of the Letters 289 Plot to Murder Mazarin 291 Arrest of Beaufort 292 Dispersion of the Importants .....*.., 293 Relations of Mazarin with the Queen ...... 296 Letters of the Queen to Mazarin ....... 297 Duel between Guise and Coligny ....... 299

Chapter VIII

Continuation of the War — 1643-1648. Expenses of the Government . 301 Weight of Taxation 303 Insurrections among the Peasants ....... 304 Tax on Buildings .......... 307 Forced Loan ........... 308 Resistance of Parliament ......... 309 Bed of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Tax on Provisions Verified by Court of Aids ..... 313 Battle of Freiburg 315 Conquests by the French . . . . . . . . ,317 Defeat in Catalonia . . . . . . . . . .318 Turenne Defeated at Marienthal ....... 319 Battle of Nordlingen . . . . . . , . .321 Elector of Treves Restored ........ 322 Duke of Bavaria Makes Peace ........ 323 Hollanders Desire Peace ......... 325 Campaign in the Low Countries ....... 326 Siege and Capture of Dunkirk ........ 327 Plans for Annexing Spanish Low Countries . . . . .331 Proposed Marriage of Louis XIV. ....... 333 Negotiations for Peace ......... 336 The United Provinces Make Terms with Spain ..... 337 Death of Gassion 338 Terms of the Treaty between United Provinces and Spain . . . 339 Character of Urban VIII. ......... 340 Election of Innocent X. ........ 342 Mazarin's Indignation PAGE Endeavors to Conciliate the Pope 345 Expedition against Orbitello ........ 347 Its Failure ........... 348 Second Expedition to Italy . 349 Marriage of Marie Gonzagua ........ 351 Michael Mazarin Made Cardinal 353 Revolt of Naples .......... 355 Mazarin's Views .......... 356 The Duke of Guise 358 He Goes to Naples .......... 361 Condition of Affairs there 362 Guise Made Generalissimo ......... 365 French Fleet Sails to Naples ........ 367 It Does Nothing .......... 369 Conduct of Guise at Naples ........ 370 The Spanish Admitted into the City ....... 373 Guise is Taken Prisoner . . ....... 374 Failure of the French at Naples ........ 375

Chapter IX

Parliament and the Beginning of the Fronde — 1648. Defeat at Lerida 377 Development of French Judicial System ...... 379 Origin of Parliament of Paris ........ 382 Character of Judiciary ......... 383 Different Systems of Law ......... 385 Right of Registration 387 Contest of Parliament with Richelieu ...... 390 Financial Embarrassment ......... 392 Bed of Justice ........... 394 Debates in Parliament ......... 39° Renewal of the Paulette 399 It is Revoked 400 Arrest of Judges .......... 402 The Courts Resolve on a Union ....... 404 It is Granted by the Regent . 4°7 Meeting at the Chamber of St. Louis ....... 409 Beginning of the Fronde ......... 4Io Propositions Introduced at Chamber of St. Louis .... 412 They are Considered by the Parliament ...... 415 Bankruptcy of the Government ........ 4J6 Abolition of Office of Superintendents 4J7 Debates on the Taille ......... 418 Battle of Lens FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN.

PAGE Celebrations at Paris 425 Arrest of Broussel • 42(**> Early Career of the Cardinal of Retz ....... 428 He takes Part in the Public Agitations 432 Barricades at Paris ........•• 433 Release of Broussel .......... 435 The Regent Leaves Paris ......... 437 Return of Conde 43§ Arrest of Chateauneuf and Chavigni ....... 439 Parliament Asks for a Conference 44° Demands Made by the Judges . 442 They are Granted by the Regent 444 Edict of October 445

Chapter X

The Treaty of Westphalia — 1648. Review of the Thirty Years' War ....... 447 Ravages of the War ......... 45° First Negotiations for Peace . . . . . . . 45 r Mtinster and Osnabriick Chosen for the Congress .... 454 Negotiations with Holland ........ 45° Beginning of the Congress of Westphalia ..... 457 The Minor German Powers Send Deputies ..... 459 Terms of Peace Proposed ......... 4^° Propositions of France and Sweden . . . .- . . 4°3 Demands for Annexation of Territory ...... 465 Longueville Joins the Embassy ........ 4Dl-*> Alsace Ceded to France ......... 4°9 Mazarin wishes Peace Made 470 Religious Questions Discussed . . . . . . . .47 s Negotiations with Duke of Bavaria . . . . . . . 473 Little Prague Captured ......... 475 Treaty of Peace Signed 477 Terms of the Treaty of Westphalia 478 Its Effect on Germany . . .481

Chapter I. The Minority Of Louis XIII

The reign of the House of Valois ended at the death of Henry III., and with the accession of Henry of Navarre began the two centuries during which France was ruled by kings of the House of Bourbon. Within this period we find the full development of a centralized and absolute monarchy in that kingdom, which met with no check until its final overthrow by the Revolution. The early years of the reign of Henry IV. were chiefly occupied with the establishment of his own authority against the opposition of the League and of the House of Guise, and, after the civil wars were ended, he was engaged in allaying the disorders they had caused, and in regulating the relations between the Catholics and the Protestants. It was only sixteen years after Paris received Henry as the acknowledged king of France, that he was murdered by Ravaillac.

During those years the pacification of the kingdom was completed, the edict of Nantes was granted, and much was done towards improving the national finances, fostering agriculture and trade, and advancing the general welfare. The people were weary of the anarchy of civil war, and there was no disposition to interfere with the royal authority exercised by a popular king for the general good. Henry's reign was succeeded by a weak minority, and, after that, for almost forty years, the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin were the rulers of France. For nearly twenty years Richelieu exercised a controlling influence in that kingdom, and the power which he gained for himself he left to a successor whom he had brought from Italy, and educated to adopt his views and follow his policy. It is during this period that the French monarchy is often said to have become absolute.

The principles of Riche lieu, enforced by him and adopted by Mazarin, are thought to have overthrown all checks upon the power of the French kings. Such a view of their administration is not correct, unless it is received with many modifications. The period was, undoubtedly, one of transition. Old things had passed away, and the time for new things had come. Had Richelieu and Mazarin been men who believed that the glory and growth of France were to be sought more through her internal development than through a policy of foreign conquest, it was possible for them, and especially for Richelieu, to have turned her energies in these directions. But at that time, as so often in French history, victories in the field, new territories annexed, a recognized influence in European politics, were grateful to the people as well as to the ministers.

Had the two cardinals desired to build up constitutional checks on the royal authority and to make of France a limited monarchy, it is possible that, by changing the nature and character of the States-General, a body might have been organized which would have corresponded to the English Parliament. But it is rare, indeed, to find an absolute minister of an absolute king, who, unless compelled by popular demand, establishes popular checks upon the royal authority. Restraints upon authority are not granted by kings until they are demanded by subjects. The cardinals failed to develop any popular tendencies in French government, although it would have been well for the king and the people that such should have been fostered, and a form of government evolved which would have proved stable and progressive.

But it cannot be said that they overthrew any checks on authority which had been established, or that they changed the nature of the French monarchy. The States-General met in 1614, before Richelieu became a minister, but, although they met at a time favorable for increasing or, at least, retain ing the authority which they had at times exercised, their session was barren of results, and, in the fifty years that followed, there was no popular demand for their re assembling. Important changes in the internal organization of France were made under Richelieu, which tended to the centralization of power, but such changes were almost without exception advantageous. France had grown by the accession of many states and provinces which had once been independent, and from its composite character the kingdom contained a vast confusion of different customs, of petty and inharmonious officials engaged in a costly and inefficient administration of public affairs.

So far as he sought to centralize the administration of the affairs of the kingdom, Richelieu led in a direction in which the French Revolution was to follow. Both under Richelieu and Mazarin there was a long con test between the king and the nobility, and there were struggles arising from the authority which certain courts sought to exercise. The nature of these contests will appear in the history of their administrations, but they arose from no endeavor to break down any check on royal authority, which formed a recognized part of the government of France. There existed no such check. France, like the other countries of Europe, had passed through its feudal period, and in it the feudal system had been highly devel oped. The two hundred and fifty years during which the House of Valois reigned, were largely occupied by wars of so serious a nature that they brought the country often to a condition of anarchy.

For over a century, with little intermission, war was waged with England to decide whether France should be ruled by a French or an English king. In such a contest, during which the French king was often a fugitive from his own capital, his power was at times little more than nominal, and great feudal lords could conduct themselves almost as independent princes. It was during this period of confusion that we find Stephen Marcel leading almost the only important and thoroughly popular movement in the early history of France. This, however, failed for many reasons, but chiefly because neither the times nor the condition of the people would allow or sustain an intelligently conducted popular government. The movement was chiefly confined to Paris, and France was not yet a centralized kingdom. Means of communication were imperfect, intercourse was comparatively slight, and the revolution at Paris had an uncertain and wavering support in the provinces.

After the wars with England were ended, the dangers that beset royalty arose from the exorbitant power of the royal dukes. The appanages granted to younger sons of kings amounted almost to a subdivision of the kingdom. The struggle was now not so much with feudal lords who could claim an authority as ancient as that of the descendants of Hugh Capet, as with great princes who were the kinsmen of the king and had received their ter ritories as gifts from the crown. The reign of Louis XI. and the overthrow of the House of Burgundy ended these conflicts, and France soon began to take an active part in the struggles for a predominant influence in European politics, which mark the period of Francis I. But the Reformation had come, and it gained many followers in some portions of France. The larger part of the century before Richelieu, was filled with internal dissension and civil wars arising from questions of religion.

In these the great nobles had played an important part, and their endeavors — not so much to preserve an independent power, as to gain large personal advantages — form one of the political phases of that period. It was such endeavors that both Richelieu and Mazarin had to meet. But from the resistance of royal dukes or powerful nobles there had been developed no legal check on the French kings. The power of the king was restrained by turbulence but not by law. The sixteenth century was marked also by sessions of the States-General of comparative frequency. That body was the only element which was capable of an im portant development in the direction of constitutional government, and it seemed possible that it might now acquire a position in which it should represent the people and restrain the royal authority.

But such a result could only come from the persistent and intelligent demand of those whom the States represented for a modification of their organization and an increase of their powers. Such a demand was not made, and the great ministers of the seventeenth century never saw fit to seek for themselves a popular support or to enlist in their behalf the aid of a popular representative body. Richelieu was hated and feared by the people, and Mazarin was hated and despised. Each held his power by the royal favor and would have been driven from office by the popular will. The death of Henry IV., in 1610, changed the aspect of French politics. While the study of any long period shows that little importance attaches to the sudden removal of any actor on the scene, yet from Henry's murder there resulted not only a considerable change in internal politics, but the influence of France in European affairs was for many years modified.

At few periods have political murders been more frequent than during the fifty years following the revolt of the Neth erlands. They were favorite expedients of Philip II. The nature of the contest then raging was a justification for any act. Both in the Netherlands and in France the struggle was between opposing creeds. In order to blot out the growing heresies which rent the unity of the Church, to check the moral plague which was destroying countless souls, the violent death of any man was not only excusable, but praiseworthy. The means adopted by Philip and by the Guises were of large advantage to the cause they espoused. The thanksgivings for the massacre of Saint Bartholomew offered by Gregory XIII. and by the Court of Spain were, from their standpoint, justified. That slaughter was a crime but not a blunder, and it permanently injured the future of the Protestant cause in France.