Economic Geology, or geology in its relations to the arts and manufactures

Front matter

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY "The Earth is a great storehouse of wealth; but it requires knowledge where to search, and skill how to secure it." "There is nothing superfluous in nature; nothing useless, if man only knew how to turn it to his advantage." Granite Quarry, Dalbeattie (p. 134). ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OK GEOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES BY DAVID PAGE, LL.D. F.G.S., &c. -*\ PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN DURHAM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE Author of Text-Books on Physical Geography and Geology ; ' Handbook of Geological Terms ;' ' Geology for General Readers,* &c. Ac. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON JMDCCCLXXIV All Rights reserved

Preface

. There are works on agricultural geology, on building and decorative stones, on mortars and cements, on coal-mining, on veins and lodes, and on ores and metallurgy; but as far as the author knows there is no general treatise on geology in its numerous relations to the Arts and Manufactures. As a teacher in a busy centre of miscellaneous industry, he has experienced the want of such a work, and especially of one sufficiently brief and methodical to be used as a Text-book ■ hence the origin of the present volume. While primarily intended for the student of Applied Geology, it may be useful to the agriculturist, builder, miner, civil engineer, manufacturing chemist, and others who have to deal with minerals and metals ; and at the same time may not be devoid of interest to the general reader.

The field of industrial requirements is yearly extending, and there are few substances in the earth's crust which are now not turned to account in the multifarious industries of civilised life. A knowledge of these substances — their nature, geological position, and abundance — cannot fail to be of use to those who have to deal with them ■ and some acquaintance with them, in a general way, can as little fail to be of inter est to the intelligent observer of that scientific invention and industrial skill which labour so assiduously to convert every product of nature into objects of utility and ornament. It is impossible, within the limits of a single volume, to notice every substance — and substances now lying waste and

PREFACE.

. worthless may, in a few months, be utilised, and become of importance ; but while not professing to notice every detail in Applied Geology, the author has endeavoured to present an intelligible outline of the subject, by grouping, under distinct heads, the various arts and manufactures in which mineral and metallic substances are employed. As it is chiefly with the raw materials — their characters and modes of occurrence — that the practical geologist has to deal, com paratively little notice has been taken of the processes by which these are converted into the useful and ornamental. Such processes belong to technology, and come within the domain of the chemist, the metallurgist, and fabricator, requiring other knowledge and other lines of research than those that fall within the scope of the geologist.

Where necessary, however, for the elucidation of the subject, the nature of these processes and appliances has been briefly indicated. Manipu latory details must be sought for in technological treatises. Covering such a wide field, and condensing within the limits of a convenient Text-book, the author is sensible of imperfec tions • and would therefore solicit corrections and suggestions from those interested in the cause of education, and the pro motion of needful and accurate knowledge. Newcastle-on-Tyne, October 1874. CONTENTS. PAGE I. INTRODUCTION, i Aim and Object of Economic Geology. Illustrations of its Value and Importance. Acquisition of Geological Facts and Principles. II. THE ROCKY CRUST, . . .8 i. Its Structure and Composition, . . S Stratified and Unstratified Rocks. Relative Positions of Rocks.

Structure and Texture of Rocks. Hardness and Specific Gravity of Rocks. Composition of Rocks — Chemical and Mineralogical. Mixed Rocks — Classification and Description of. 2. Chronological Arrangement of Rock - Formations, ... . . . 23 Methods of Determining their Relative Ages. Classification of Stratified Rocks. Classification of Unstratified Rocks. Use of Geological Maps and Sections. III. GEOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE, . . 32 1. Soils and Subsoils, .... 33 Soils of Disintegration. Soils of Transport. Fertile Admixture of Soils. Draining and Drainage. 2. Mineral Manures, .... 41 Carbonaceous — Peat, Charcoal, Ashes, Soot, &c. Calcareous — Marls, Chalk, Quicklime, Gypsum, &c. Saline — Salts of Soda, Potash, Ammonia, &c. IV. GEOLOGY AND LAND-VALUATION, . . 50 1. Surface or Agricultural Value, . 51 Modes of Estimating. The Landscape. — Surface Amenity. 2. Mineral or Geological Value, . 53 Modes of Determining. X CONTENTS. V. GEOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURE—

Part I

, 5s i. Building-Stones, .... 59 Granites, Syenites, and Porphyries. Basalts, Greenstones, Felstones, .Sc. Slates, Schists, &c. Sandstones, Grits, Calcareous Freestones, &c. Limestones and Marbles. 2. Stones for Decoration and Sculpture, . 78 Granites, Porphyries, Syenites, Basalts. Slates and Serpentines. Limestones, Marbles, Alabasters. Rock-Crystal, Agates, Jaspers, Jade, &c. Malachites, Breccias, and Puddingstones. VI. GEOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURE—

Part II

, S9 1. Limes and Mortars, . . . . S9 Mortar Limestones, their Nature and Treatment. Hydraulic Limestones, their Nature and Treatment. 2. Cements and Mastics, ... 95 Calcareous Water-Cements. Calcareous and other Oil-Cements. Bituminous Cements. 3. Concretes and Artificial Stones, . 98 Concretes for Foundations, Floors, Roadways, &c. Concretes for Building and Building-Blocks. Ransome's, Chance's, and other Artificial Stones. VII, GEOLOGY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING, . 105 1. Road-Making, ..... 106 Choice of Route and Gradients. Cuttings through different Rock-Formations. Embankments and Bridges. Materials for Highways, Streets, and Footpaths. 2. Railway Construction, . . . m Choice of Route, Gradients, and Prospective Traffic. Cuttings and Tunnels through different Rock-Formations. Embankments and Bridges.

Water- Supply. 3. Construction of Canals, . . . 115 Choice of Route, and Nature of Country. Cuttings and Tunnellings. Embankments and Aqueducts. ' Water-Supply — Sites of Reservoirs. 4. Construction of Docks and Harbours, . 117 Choice of Site. Trial Borings and Excavations. Materials for Walls, Piers, and Breakwaters. 5. River Improvement, . . . -119 Tidal Rivers — Dredging and Deepening. Inland Streams— Straightening and Embanking. CONTENTS. XI 6. Water and Water-Supply of Towns, . 121 Springs and Surface-Wells. Deep Wells and Artesian Borings. Lakes and Reservoirs. Embankments, Tunnels, and Aqueducts, Waste Water — Drains and Sewers. VITL GEOLOGY AND MINE ENGINEERING, . 130 1. Quarrying or Open-Working, . . 131 Stratified Quarries — Modes of Working. Unstratified Quarries — ,, „ 2. Mining in Stratified Deposits, . . 136 Preliminary Surveys.

Sinking or Shafting. Winning the Stratum — Modes of. Obstacles and Obstructions to be overcome. 3. Mining in Veins, .... 145 Searching or Prospecting the Country. Working or Winning the Vein. General Phenomena of Metallic Veins. 4. Stream or Placer Workings, . . 151 Modes of Digging, Washing, and Sifting. IX. HEAT AND LIGHT PRODUCING MATERIALS, 156 1. Fossil Fuels, ..... 156 Peat and Prepared Peat- Fuels. Lignites and Brown-Coals. Bituminous Coals — Varieties of. Anthracites or Non-bituminous Coals. Petroleum, Crude Oils, Coal-Gas, &c. Artificial or Prepared Fuels. 2. Light-Producers, .... 169 Gas and Naphtha Springs. Petroleum Springs and Oil-Weils. Solid Bitumens — Pitch, Asphalt, &c. Bituminous Shales — Paraffin and Paraffin-Oils. Cannel-Coals — Gas-Coals. X. GEOLOGY AND THE FICTILE ARTS, . . 182 1.

The Clays we Fabricate, ... 182 Kaolin, China, or Porcelain Clay. Pipe and Pottery Clays. Brick and Tile Clays. Fire-Clays, Terra Cottas. Infusorial Clays— Floating Bricks. Meerschaum— Plastic Magnesia. 2. The Sands we Vitrify, . . . 190 Glass and its Commercial Varieties. Materials employed in Glass-making. 3. Glazes, Enamels, Colours, ... 192 Mineral and Metallic Bases of these. •CONTENTS. XI. GRINDING, WHETTING, & POLISHING MATERIALS, 195 1. Millstones, ..... 196 Sandstones, Gritstones, and Quartzites. Burrstones, Lavas, &c. 2. Grindstones and Cutting Wheels, 197 Sandstones and Grits. Solid (prepared) Emery Wheels. 3. Crushing and Pulping Wheels, . . 199 Sandstones and Grits. Quartzites, Granites, Lavas. 4. Polishing and Cutting Materials, . 199 Quartz-Sands — Crushed Sandstones. Tripoli, Rotten-Stone, Bath-Brick, Polishing Pastes.

Pumice, Emery, Garnet-Rock. Diamond-Dust, and Diamond-Points. 5. WjrlETSTONES AND HONES, . . 204 B^tts or Silicious Sandstones. Hones and Oilstones. 6. Burnishers, ..... 2o6 Agates, Bloodstones, Carnelians, Jaspers, &c. XII. REFRACTORY OR FIRE-RESISTING SUBSTANCES, 208 1. Artificial Preparations, . . , 20g Fire-Clay and Fire-Clay Manufactures. Infusorial Earths and Clay Admixtures. Graphite and Clay Admixtures. 2. Natural Products, .... 213 Firestones or Quartzose Sandstones. Leckstones or Porous Trap-Tuffs. Potstone or Steatite. Asbestos. XIII. PIGMENTS, DYES, AND DETERGENTS, . 217 1. Pigments, ...... 2,» Mineral Pigments from Earths and Ochres. Metallic Pigments prepared from Metals. Pastel Pigments, Coloured Pastes of Earths and Ochres. 2. Dyes, •••... 22*? Prepared from Minerals and Metallic Salts. 3.

Detergents, . 22, Native or Mineral, as Fuller's Earth. Artificial or Chemically prepared. XIV. SALTS AND SALINE EARTHS, . . 226 1. Salts of Soda, . . . g Chlorides — Rock- Salt, Bay- Salt. Carbonates — Natron, Trona, &c. Nitrates — Nitratine. Sulphates — Glauber-Salt, Glauberite. Borates — Borax. Fluorides — Cryolite. CONTENTS. XIII 2. Salts of. Potash, . . ... 231 Nitrates — Nitre, Saltpetre. 3. Salts of Magnesia, ... . . 232 Sulphates — Epsom Salts, Epsomite. 4. Salts of Ammonia, .... 233 Muriates — Sal- Ammoniac. Carbonate of Ammonia. Sulphate of Ammonia. 5. Salts of Alumina, .... 233 Alum-Shales, Alum-Slates, Alum-Stone. ., ... Potash- Alum, Soda- Alum, Ammonia-Alum, &c. 6. Metallic Salts-, . . ... 235 Sulphate of Iron, Copperas, Green Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper, Cyanose, Blue ,, Sulphate of Zinc, Goslarite, White ,, 7.

Barytes — Strontia, .... 236 Carbonates and Sulphates of. 8. Sulphur,* Sulphur Earths and Ores, ■"- . 237 Sulphur, native and prepared. XV. MINERAL AND THERMAL SPRINGS, . . 240 Their Nature, Origin, and Classification, . 240 Indifferent Springs. Earthy ,, Sulphur ,, Saline ,, Alkaline ,, Purgative , , Chalybeate ,, Bituminous ,, Mud „ XVI. MINERAL MEDICINES, .... 259 Arranged in alphabetical order, according to the earths and metals from which they are prepared. XVII. GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES, *.*• . 263 1. The Carbon Group, . .*-.'. . 264 Diamond, Bort, Carbonado. Amber, Ambrite. Jet, Bogwood, Cannel-Coal. 2. The Alumina Group, . . . 268 Corundum. Ruby. Sapphire. Turquoise, Odontolite. 3. The Silica-Alumina Group, . .271 Topaz. Emerald, Beryl. Lapis Lazuli. Moonstone, Labradorite. Garnets, Pyrope, Almandine, Carbuncle.

CONTENTS. 4. The Silica Group, .... 275 Rock-Crystal, Amethyst, Cairngorm, &c. Calcedony, Agate, Carnelian, Onyx, &c. Opal. Jasper, Jade, Menilite, &c. 5. Miscellaneous Group, . . . 279 Malachite. 6. Pastes or Artificial Gems, . . . 280 XVIII. THE METALS AND METALLIC ORES, . 283 1. The Native Metals, .... 284 Gold. Platinum. Palladium. Silver. Mercury, Copper, Iron, Arsenic, Antimony, &c. 2. The Metallic Ores, .... 288 The metals in alphabetical order, with notices of their physical properties, principal ores, and applications in the arts and manufactures. XIX. GENERAL SUMMARY, . . . .321 Post-Tertiary System and its Industrial Products. Tertiary System ,, ,, Cretaceous System ,, ,, Wealden Formation ,, ,, Oolitic Formation ,, ,, Liassic Formation ,. ,, Triassic System ,, ,, Permian System ,, ,, Carboniferous System ,, ,, Old Red and Devonian and their ,, Silurian and Cambrian ,, ,, Laurentian and Metamorphic ,, Volcanic Rocks ,, ,, Trappean Rocks ,, ,, Granitic Rocks ,, ,, lNDEX ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE Geological Map of the British Islands (sn socket.) Granite Quarry, Dalbeattie (Vignette.) Edinburgh Castle Rock — Eruptive and Stratified Masses, ....... 9 Dykes, Faults, Veins, ..... 10 Cutting through Boulder-Clay, . . . .112 Artesian Wells in Synclinal Strata, . . . 124 Dyke and Deep- Well Borings, .... 126 Bench or Stage Working, ..... 132 Post-and-Stall Work, ..... 139 Long- Wall Work, ...... 140 Wash-out, Nips-out, Natural Pits, . . . 143 Dyke-Fault, Step-Faults, Through -Fault, Reversed Fault, ....... 144 Various Veins, ....... 146 Faulted or Displaced Veins, .... 147 Vein-Mining — Shafts and Adits, .... 149 Hydraulic Placer-Working, ..... 153 American Oil- Well (aster Gesner), . . . 173 Burrstone — Millstones, ..... 197 Gem-Gutting— Rose, Brilliant, en Cabochon, . . ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. I.